Wednesday, June 30, 2010

中国石墨矿地理分布www.tool-tool.com

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文章来源: http://www.cntansu.com/ypnew_view.asp?id=1463

截至1996年止,中国保有储量的69处大、中型石墨矿产地的分布。各地区保有石墨矿产资源概况如下:

1.华北地区

保有石墨矿产地22处。其中:晶质石墨矿20处(大型矿1处、中型矿14处、小型矿5处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级904万t,主要分布于内蒙古自治区及山西与河北省的北部;隐晶质石墨矿2处(小型),共计保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量11万t,分布于北京市郊。
内蒙古自治区是中国晶质石墨矿主要的蕴藏区和当前鳞片石墨主要产区之一。从自治区西面的阿拉善左旗,往东经包头、呼和浩特至集宁、兴和一带长 700~800km地段内,已发现矿产地数十处,估计晶质石墨矿资源量在2000万t以上,已勘查的矿产地有13处(中型矿11处、小型矿2处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量548万t。其中∶集宁县以东的兴和县黄土夭石墨矿由1号矿、18号矿B段、18号矿C段和其他矿体4处中型矿和11号小型矿,加上附近的荣华背中型矿,实际构成一个大型矿区,各矿均已利用,矿山开发具有六七十年的历史,以产出优质大鳞片石墨而著称,是中国著名的鳞片石墨生产矿山之一;在兴和县以西,还有丰镇县南井、武川县庙沟、土默特左旗什报气和灯笼素4处中型矿也已利用,形成以兴和为重点的中国鳞片石墨生产基地之一。此外,固阳县五当召、阿拉善右旗挡巴井2个中型矿和包头市克尔马沟小型矿也可供选择利用。
内蒙古兴和石墨矿以南,在山西北部分布有晶质石墨矿4处(大型矿1处、中型矿2处、小型矿1处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量318万t。其中:大同市弘赐堡大型矿和六亩地、鸡窝涧中型矿可供选择利用,天镇县白羊口小型矿可供边采边探。内蒙古兴和石墨矿以东,河北省赤城县艾家沟中型晶质石墨矿于1988年开采利用,其附近新发现的水泉中型晶质石墨矿也可供选择利用,怀安县蔓青沟和阳原县谷端庄2处小型晶质石墨矿也已零星开采。河北省东部青龙县魏仗子和南部邢台市,还各分布小型晶质石墨矿1处,现已停采。河北省共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量38万t。
隐晶质石墨矿在华北地区少见,分布于北京市海淀区南安河和房山县车厂的2个小型矿,矿石品位低,现已停采。
2.东北地区
保有石墨矿产地28处。其中:晶质石墨矿25处(大型矿8处、中型矿10处、小型矿7处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级11272万t,主要分布于黑龙江省,在辽宁和吉林省也有少量产出;隐晶质石墨矿3处(中型矿1处、小型矿2处),保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量B+C+D级529万t。主要分布于吉林省,在黑龙江省有少量产出。
黑龙江省是中国晶质石墨矿最主要的蕴藏区和当前鳞片石墨主要产区之一。分布有晶质石墨矿产地21处(大型矿8处、中型矿7处、小型矿6处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量11106万t。除在其北部呼玛县门都里有一可供利用的中型矿外,其余集中分布于东部的鸡西至萝北一带,包括林口、穆棱、密山、勃利和双鸭山等地,估计这一带的资源量可达二三亿吨。鸡西市柳毛石墨矿储量规模特大,已开采利用六七十年,是中国生产鳞片石墨著名矿山之一;规模特大全国第一的萝北云山石墨矿和穆棱县光义与鸡西市石场3处大型矿及鸡西市永台安山中型矿也已利用;还有勃利县佛岭(规模特大)、穆棱县寨山、双鸭山市羊鼻山及密山市马来山5 处大型矿,以及鸡西市土顶山东山、鸡东县长山、勃利县双河、林口县碾子沟和八道沟、曲沟6处小型矿均可供选择利用,丰富的矿产资源形成了以柳毛为重点的中国鳞片石墨生产基地之一。
此外,东北地区的晶质石墨矿还在辽宁省的岫岩丰富矿区和桓仁县大恩堡各分布有1处中型矿,共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量C+D级57万t;在吉林省通化县三半江和集安市双兴,有中型和小型矿各1处,保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级109万t,均可供选择利用。
吉林省是中国隐晶质石墨矿较主要的蕴藏区和当前微晶石墨主要产区。磐石县烟筒山中型隐晶质石墨矿已开采利用70余年,是中国生产微晶石墨的著名矿山之一;敦化市东大崴子小型矿,矿石品位低,近期难以利用,两矿共计保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量499万t。此外,在黑龙江省铁力市神树小白河有一小型隐晶质石墨矿,可供边采边探。

3.华东地区
保有晶质石墨矿产地16处(大型矿6处、中型矿6处、小型矿4处),共计保有B+C+D级晶质石墨矿物储量1600万t。主要分布于山东省,是中国晶质石墨矿的主要蕴藏区和当前鳞片石墨主要产区之一。石墨矿集中于胶东地区的平度、莱西、莱阳以及文登、牟平一带,已发现石墨产地数十处,估计资源量可有三四千万吨。已经勘查的石墨矿产地13处(大型矿5处、中型矿5处、小型矿3处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量1311万t。莱西县南墅石墨矿包括岳石和刘家庄2 个大型矿,已开采利用50余年,是中国著名的鳞片石墨生产矿山之一,邻近的北墅大型石墨矿也已开采30余年,均以产出优质大鳞片石墨而著称;平度市刘戈庄大型矿、平度市明村和牟平县徐村2个中型矿及莱阳市大梁口和山前夼2个小型矿均已利用;还有平度市刘家寨大型矿、平度市张舍和文登市臧格庄2个中型矿及牟平县新添堡等小型矿均可供选择利用,形成以南墅为中心的中国鳞片石墨生产基地之一。
此外,江西省金溪县峡山大型晶质石墨矿(保有矿物储量218万t);福建省建阳县岭根墙中型晶质石墨矿(保有矿物储量54万t)可供选择利用;安徽省怀宁县横山小型晶质石墨矿(保有矿物储量17万t)可供进一步工作。
4.中南地区
保有石墨矿产地18处。其中:晶质石墨矿12处(大型矿3处、中型矿4处、小型矿5处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级977万t,主要分布于河南省,在湖北、海南、广东省也有产出;隐晶质石墨矿6处(大型矿1处、中型矿3处、小型矿2处),共计保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量B+C+D级3726万t,主要分布于湖南省,在广东省有少量产出。
河南省是中国晶质石墨主要蕴藏区之一。石墨矿集中分布于其西部的灵宝、卢氏、西峡、淅川、镇平一带,估计资源量可达一二千万吨。已勘查的3处大型矿共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量746万t,其中:西峡县横岭矿已利用,淅川县小陡岭及镇平县小岔沟两矿可供选择利用。还有灵宝石墨矿也已开采多年,其规模可达中型。此外:湖北省保有晶质石墨矿物储量156万t,主要分布在宜昌县,三岔垭中型矿已利用,谭家河、二郎庙2处中型矿及广水市芦花湾小型矿可供选择利用,兴山县东冲河小型矿近期不宜进一步工作;海南省保有晶质石墨矿物储量58万t,琼海市烟塘小型矿已利用,曾经开采的琼海县伍园中型矿及乐东县俄文岭小型矿可供选择利用;广东省吴川市梅蓬小型石墨矿保有晶质石墨矿物储量17万t,曾经开采,现已停采。
湖南省是中国隐晶质石墨矿最主要的蕴藏区和微晶石墨最主要的产区,保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量B+C+D级3375万t。位于湘南的郴州市鲁塘中型石墨矿已开采利用60余年,是中国生产微晶石墨最著名的矿山。其深部远景资源可观,预测可达二三千万吨,其西北部的桂阳荷叶分布有目前中国唯一的大型隐晶质石墨矿,以及位于湘中的冷水江三尖隐中型矿,均已开始利用,形成以鲁塘为中心的中国微晶石墨生产基地。此外,广东省保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量351万t。其中:佛冈县铜溪水窿尾小型矿已利用,附近的水头小型矿已闭坑,连平县梅洞中型矿可供选择利用。
5.西南地区
保有晶质石墨矿产地6处(大型矿3处、中型矿2处、小型矿1处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级2110万t。主要分布于四川省,在云南省和西藏自治区也有产出。
四川省是中国晶质石墨主要的蕴藏区之一,保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级1622万t。位于川北的南江县坪河中型石墨矿已开采利用七八十年,邻近的向阳坡小型石墨矿也已利用。川西南攀枝花市中坝石墨的规模特大,可供选择利用,其周围具有良好的成矿条件,蕴藏着可观的资源。此外,云南省南部元阳县棕皮寨中型矿已利用,昆明市以西牟定县戍街大型矿可供选择利用,共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量244万t。西藏自治区东部靠近四川的左贡县大型石墨矿,保有晶质石墨矿物储量244万t,矿区远景资源量大,但因开采和交通条件差,近期难以利用。
6.西北地区

保有石墨矿产地13处。其中:晶质石墨矿11处(大型矿2处、中型矿4处、小型矿5处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级454万t,主要分布于陕西省,在甘肃省和新疆自治区也有少量产出;隐晶质石墨矿2处(中、小型矿各1处),共计保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量C+D级227万t,分布于陕西省。
陕西省是西北地区石墨矿分布相对较多的蕴藏区。保有晶质石墨矿物储量368万t,其中:西安市崇阳沟和洋县铁河大安沟2处大型矿,丹凤县庾家河和大西沟碾子坪2处中型矿,可供选择利用;长安县大峪五里庙和扯袍峪、潼关县善车峪和东桐峪4处小型矿可供进一步工作或边采边探。保有隐晶质石墨矿中,眉县铜峪中型矿已开采利用60多年,户县涝峪银洞沟小型矿曾经开采,可继续利用。此外,甘肃省保有晶质石墨矿物储量62万t,位于武威市东北的民勤县唐家鄂博山中型矿可供选择利用,安西县红柳河西-水沟子小型矿近期不宜进一步工作;新疆自治区保有晶质石墨矿物储量24万t,分布于奇台县苏吉泉中型矿中,可供选择利用。

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中国石墨矿地理分布www.tool-tool.com

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文章来源: http://www.cntansu.com/ypnew_view.asp?id=1463

截至1996年止,中国保有储量的69处大、中型石墨矿产地的分布。各地区保有石墨矿产资源概况如下:

1.华北地区

保有石墨矿产地22处。其中:晶质石墨矿20处(大型矿1处、中型矿14处、小型矿5处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级904万t,主要分布于内蒙古自治区及山西与河北省的北部;隐晶质石墨矿2处(小型),共计保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量11万t,分布于北京市郊。
内蒙古自治区是中国晶质石墨矿主要的蕴藏区和当前鳞片石墨主要产区之一。从自治区西面的阿拉善左旗,往东经包头、呼和浩特至集宁、兴和一带长 700~800km地段内,已发现矿产地数十处,估计晶质石墨矿资源量在2000万t以上,已勘查的矿产地有13处(中型矿11处、小型矿2处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量548万t。其中∶集宁县以东的兴和县黄土夭石墨矿由1号矿、18号矿B段、18号矿C段和其他矿体4处中型矿和11号小型矿,加上附近的荣华背中型矿,实际构成一个大型矿区,各矿均已利用,矿山开发具有六七十年的历史,以产出优质大鳞片石墨而著称,是中国著名的鳞片石墨生产矿山之一;在兴和县以西,还有丰镇县南井、武川县庙沟、土默特左旗什报气和灯笼素4处中型矿也已利用,形成以兴和为重点的中国鳞片石墨生产基地之一。此外,固阳县五当召、阿拉善右旗挡巴井2个中型矿和包头市克尔马沟小型矿也可供选择利用。
内蒙古兴和石墨矿以南,在山西北部分布有晶质石墨矿4处(大型矿1处、中型矿2处、小型矿1处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量318万t。其中:大同市弘赐堡大型矿和六亩地、鸡窝涧中型矿可供选择利用,天镇县白羊口小型矿可供边采边探。内蒙古兴和石墨矿以东,河北省赤城县艾家沟中型晶质石墨矿于1988年开采利用,其附近新发现的水泉中型晶质石墨矿也可供选择利用,怀安县蔓青沟和阳原县谷端庄2处小型晶质石墨矿也已零星开采。河北省东部青龙县魏仗子和南部邢台市,还各分布小型晶质石墨矿1处,现已停采。河北省共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量38万t。
隐晶质石墨矿在华北地区少见,分布于北京市海淀区南安河和房山县车厂的2个小型矿,矿石品位低,现已停采。
2.东北地区
保有石墨矿产地28处。其中:晶质石墨矿25处(大型矿8处、中型矿10处、小型矿7处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级11272万t,主要分布于黑龙江省,在辽宁和吉林省也有少量产出;隐晶质石墨矿3处(中型矿1处、小型矿2处),保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量B+C+D级529万t。主要分布于吉林省,在黑龙江省有少量产出。
黑龙江省是中国晶质石墨矿最主要的蕴藏区和当前鳞片石墨主要产区之一。分布有晶质石墨矿产地21处(大型矿8处、中型矿7处、小型矿6处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量11106万t。除在其北部呼玛县门都里有一可供利用的中型矿外,其余集中分布于东部的鸡西至萝北一带,包括林口、穆棱、密山、勃利和双鸭山等地,估计这一带的资源量可达二三亿吨。鸡西市柳毛石墨矿储量规模特大,已开采利用六七十年,是中国生产鳞片石墨著名矿山之一;规模特大全国第一的萝北云山石墨矿和穆棱县光义与鸡西市石场3处大型矿及鸡西市永台安山中型矿也已利用;还有勃利县佛岭(规模特大)、穆棱县寨山、双鸭山市羊鼻山及密山市马来山5 处大型矿,以及鸡西市土顶山东山、鸡东县长山、勃利县双河、林口县碾子沟和八道沟、曲沟6处小型矿均可供选择利用,丰富的矿产资源形成了以柳毛为重点的中国鳞片石墨生产基地之一。
此外,东北地区的晶质石墨矿还在辽宁省的岫岩丰富矿区和桓仁县大恩堡各分布有1处中型矿,共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量C+D级57万t;在吉林省通化县三半江和集安市双兴,有中型和小型矿各1处,保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级109万t,均可供选择利用。
吉林省是中国隐晶质石墨矿较主要的蕴藏区和当前微晶石墨主要产区。磐石县烟筒山中型隐晶质石墨矿已开采利用70余年,是中国生产微晶石墨的著名矿山之一;敦化市东大崴子小型矿,矿石品位低,近期难以利用,两矿共计保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量499万t。此外,在黑龙江省铁力市神树小白河有一小型隐晶质石墨矿,可供边采边探。

3.华东地区
保有晶质石墨矿产地16处(大型矿6处、中型矿6处、小型矿4处),共计保有B+C+D级晶质石墨矿物储量1600万t。主要分布于山东省,是中国晶质石墨矿的主要蕴藏区和当前鳞片石墨主要产区之一。石墨矿集中于胶东地区的平度、莱西、莱阳以及文登、牟平一带,已发现石墨产地数十处,估计资源量可有三四千万吨。已经勘查的石墨矿产地13处(大型矿5处、中型矿5处、小型矿3处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量1311万t。莱西县南墅石墨矿包括岳石和刘家庄2 个大型矿,已开采利用50余年,是中国著名的鳞片石墨生产矿山之一,邻近的北墅大型石墨矿也已开采30余年,均以产出优质大鳞片石墨而著称;平度市刘戈庄大型矿、平度市明村和牟平县徐村2个中型矿及莱阳市大梁口和山前夼2个小型矿均已利用;还有平度市刘家寨大型矿、平度市张舍和文登市臧格庄2个中型矿及牟平县新添堡等小型矿均可供选择利用,形成以南墅为中心的中国鳞片石墨生产基地之一。
此外,江西省金溪县峡山大型晶质石墨矿(保有矿物储量218万t);福建省建阳县岭根墙中型晶质石墨矿(保有矿物储量54万t)可供选择利用;安徽省怀宁县横山小型晶质石墨矿(保有矿物储量17万t)可供进一步工作。
4.中南地区
保有石墨矿产地18处。其中:晶质石墨矿12处(大型矿3处、中型矿4处、小型矿5处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级977万t,主要分布于河南省,在湖北、海南、广东省也有产出;隐晶质石墨矿6处(大型矿1处、中型矿3处、小型矿2处),共计保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量B+C+D级3726万t,主要分布于湖南省,在广东省有少量产出。
河南省是中国晶质石墨主要蕴藏区之一。石墨矿集中分布于其西部的灵宝、卢氏、西峡、淅川、镇平一带,估计资源量可达一二千万吨。已勘查的3处大型矿共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量746万t,其中:西峡县横岭矿已利用,淅川县小陡岭及镇平县小岔沟两矿可供选择利用。还有灵宝石墨矿也已开采多年,其规模可达中型。此外:湖北省保有晶质石墨矿物储量156万t,主要分布在宜昌县,三岔垭中型矿已利用,谭家河、二郎庙2处中型矿及广水市芦花湾小型矿可供选择利用,兴山县东冲河小型矿近期不宜进一步工作;海南省保有晶质石墨矿物储量58万t,琼海市烟塘小型矿已利用,曾经开采的琼海县伍园中型矿及乐东县俄文岭小型矿可供选择利用;广东省吴川市梅蓬小型石墨矿保有晶质石墨矿物储量17万t,曾经开采,现已停采。
湖南省是中国隐晶质石墨矿最主要的蕴藏区和微晶石墨最主要的产区,保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量B+C+D级3375万t。位于湘南的郴州市鲁塘中型石墨矿已开采利用60余年,是中国生产微晶石墨最著名的矿山。其深部远景资源可观,预测可达二三千万吨,其西北部的桂阳荷叶分布有目前中国唯一的大型隐晶质石墨矿,以及位于湘中的冷水江三尖隐中型矿,均已开始利用,形成以鲁塘为中心的中国微晶石墨生产基地。此外,广东省保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量351万t。其中:佛冈县铜溪水窿尾小型矿已利用,附近的水头小型矿已闭坑,连平县梅洞中型矿可供选择利用。
5.西南地区
保有晶质石墨矿产地6处(大型矿3处、中型矿2处、小型矿1处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级2110万t。主要分布于四川省,在云南省和西藏自治区也有产出。
四川省是中国晶质石墨主要的蕴藏区之一,保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级1622万t。位于川北的南江县坪河中型石墨矿已开采利用七八十年,邻近的向阳坡小型石墨矿也已利用。川西南攀枝花市中坝石墨的规模特大,可供选择利用,其周围具有良好的成矿条件,蕴藏着可观的资源。此外,云南省南部元阳县棕皮寨中型矿已利用,昆明市以西牟定县戍街大型矿可供选择利用,共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量244万t。西藏自治区东部靠近四川的左贡县大型石墨矿,保有晶质石墨矿物储量244万t,矿区远景资源量大,但因开采和交通条件差,近期难以利用。
6.西北地区

保有石墨矿产地13处。其中:晶质石墨矿11处(大型矿2处、中型矿4处、小型矿5处),共计保有晶质石墨矿物储量B+C+D级454万t,主要分布于陕西省,在甘肃省和新疆自治区也有少量产出;隐晶质石墨矿2处(中、小型矿各1处),共计保有隐晶质石墨矿石储量C+D级227万t,分布于陕西省。
陕西省是西北地区石墨矿分布相对较多的蕴藏区。保有晶质石墨矿物储量368万t,其中:西安市崇阳沟和洋县铁河大安沟2处大型矿,丹凤县庾家河和大西沟碾子坪2处中型矿,可供选择利用;长安县大峪五里庙和扯袍峪、潼关县善车峪和东桐峪4处小型矿可供进一步工作或边采边探。保有隐晶质石墨矿中,眉县铜峪中型矿已开采利用60多年,户县涝峪银洞沟小型矿曾经开采,可继续利用。此外,甘肃省保有晶质石墨矿物储量62万t,位于武威市东北的民勤县唐家鄂博山中型矿可供选择利用,安西县红柳河西-水沟子小型矿近期不宜进一步工作;新疆自治区保有晶质石墨矿物储量24万t,分布于奇台县苏吉泉中型矿中,可供选择利用。

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(6)ダイヤモンド・エンド・ミル

(7)医療用品エンド・ミル設計

(8)自動車部品&材料加工向けエンド・ミル設計

弊社の製品の供給調達機能は:

(1)生活産業~ハイテク工業までのエンド・ミル設計

(2)ミクロ・エンド・ミル~大型エンド・ミル供給

(3)小Lot生産~大量発注対応供給

(4)オートメーション整備調達

(5)スポット対応~流れ生産対応

弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。

Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz.

BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт www.tool-tool.com для получения большей информации.

BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web www.tool-tool.com for more info.

Graphite www.tool-tool.com

版1ec31-02w00

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com Reference source from the internet.

Big Photo

Windham, Rockingham Co., New Hampshire, USA

Show Graphite Photos (142)Create Talk Page

Formula:

C

System:
Hexagonal
Colour:
Iron black to steel-grey

Lustre:
Sub-Metallic
Hardness:
1 - 2

Name:
From Greek "graphein", 'to write'; named by German chemist and mineralogist A. G. Werner in 1789.

Polymorph of:
Chaoite, Diamond, Lonsdaleite

Graphite usually occurs in flakes in metamorphosed rocks rich in carbon, but it can also be found in veins and in pegmatites. Where large deposits are found it is mined and used as an industrial lubricant and for 'lead' in pencils.
Classification of Graphite

IMA status:
Valid - first described prior to 1959 (pre-IMA) - "Grandfathered"

Strunz 8th edition ID:
1/B.02-10

Nickel-Strunz 10th (pending) edition ID:
1.CB.05a
1 : ELEMENTS (Metals and intermetallic alloys; metalloids and nonmetals; carbides, silicides, nitrides, phosphides)
C : Metalloids and Nonmetals
B : Carbon-silicon family

Dana 7th edition ID:
1.3.5.2

Dana 8th edition ID:
1.3.6.2
1 : NATIVE ELEMENTS AND ALLOYS
3 : Semi-metals and non-metals

Hey's CIM Ref.:
1.25
1 : Elements and Alloys (including the arsenides, antimonides and bismuthides of Cu, Ag and Au)

mindat.org URL:
http://www.mindat.org/min-1740.html
Please feel free to link to this page.
Physical Properties of Graphite

Lustre:
Sub-Metallic

Diaphaneity (Transparency):
Opaque

Colour:
Iron black to steel-grey

Streak:
Black to steel gray

Hardness (Mohs):
1 - 2

Hardness (Vickers):
VHN10=7 - 11 kg/mm2

Tenacity:
Flexible

Cleavage:
Perfect
{0001}

Fracture:
Micaceous

Density (measured):
2.09 - 2.23 g/cm3

Density (calculated):
2.26 g/cm3
Crystallography of Graphite

Crystal System:
Hexagonal

Class (H-M):
6mm - Dihexagonal Pyramidal

Space Group:
P63mc

Cell Parameters:
a = 2.461Å, c = 6.708Å

Ratio:
a:c = 1 : 2.726

Unit Cell Volume:
V 35.18 ų (Calculated from Unit Cell)

Morphology:
Hexagonal platy crystals, often bent.

Twinning:
{1121}
About Crystal Atlas
You may need to scroll this box using your mouse to view the full instructions.
The mindat.org Crystal Atlas allows you to view a selection of crystal drawings of real and idealised crystal forms for this mineral and, in certain cases, 3d rotating crystal objects. You need Java to see these. You can download Java for free - click here to download Java
The 3d models and java code are kindly provided by www.smorf.nl. You can control the movement of the models by holding down the left mouse-button over the 3d model and moving your mouse. Keyboard controls are:
: default positions

t/T
: decrease/increase transparency
x/X
: next/previous texture

b/B
: next/previous background
w
: toggle wireframe

s
: toggle sticks
m
: toggle miller indices

k
: toggle crystallographic axes
=/-
: zoom in/out

r
: stop/start rotation
1/2/3

歡迎來到Bewise Inc.的世界,首先恭喜您來到這接受新的資訊讓產業更有競爭力,我們是提供專業刀具製造商,應對客戶高品質的刀具需求,我們可以協助客戶滿足您對產業的不同要求,我們有能力達到非常卓越的客戶需求品質,這是現有相關技術無法比擬的,我們成功的滿足了各行各業的要求,包括:精密HSS DIN切削刀具、協助客戶設計刀具流程、DIN or JIS 鎢鋼切削刀具設計、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 航太切削刀具,NAS航太刀具設計、超高硬度的切削刀具、醫療配件刀具設計、複合式再研磨機、PCD地板專用企口鑽石組合刀具、粉末造粒成型機、主機版專用頂級電桿、PCD V-Cut刀、捨棄式圓鋸片組、粉末成型機、主機版專用頂級電感、’汽車業刀具設計、電子產業鑽石刀具、木工產業鑽石刀具、銑刀與切斷複合再研磨機、銑刀與鑽頭複合再研磨機、銑刀與螺絲攻複合再研磨機等等。我們的產品涵蓋了從民生刀具到工業級的刀具設計;從微細刀具到大型刀具;從小型生產到大型量產;全自動整合;我們的技術可提供您連續生產的效能,我們整體的服務及卓越的技術,恭迎您親自體驗!!

BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com bw@tool-tool.com www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan

Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer.

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com

ようこそBewise Inc.の世界へお越し下さいませ、先ず御目出度たいのは新たな

情報を受け取って頂き、もっと各産業に競争力プラス展開。

弊社は専門なエンド・ミルの製造メーカーで、客先に色んな分野のニーズ、

豊富なパリエーションを満足させ、特にハイテク品質要求にサポート致します。

弊社は各領域に供給できる内容は:

(1)精密HSSエンド・ミルのR&D

(2)Carbide Cutting tools設計

(3)鎢鋼エンド・ミル設計

(4)航空エンド・ミル設計

(5)超高硬度エンド・ミル

(6)ダイヤモンド・エンド・ミル

(7)医療用品エンド・ミル設計

(8)自動車部品&材料加工向けエンド・ミル設計

弊社の製品の供給調達機能は:

(1)生活産業~ハイテク工業までのエンド・ミル設計

(2)ミクロ・エンド・ミル~大型エンド・ミル供給

(3)小Lot生産~大量発注対応供給

(4)オートメーション整備調達

(5)スポット対応~流れ生産対応

弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。

Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz.

BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт www.tool-tool.com для получения большей информации.

BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web www.tool-tool.com for more info.

Graphite www.tool-tool.com

版1ec31-02w00

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com Reference source from the internet.

Big Photo

Windham, Rockingham Co., New Hampshire, USA

Show Graphite Photos (142)Create Talk Page

Formula:

C

System:
Hexagonal
Colour:
Iron black to steel-grey

Lustre:
Sub-Metallic
Hardness:
1 - 2

Name:
From Greek "graphein", 'to write'; named by German chemist and mineralogist A. G. Werner in 1789.

Polymorph of:
Chaoite, Diamond, Lonsdaleite

Graphite usually occurs in flakes in metamorphosed rocks rich in carbon, but it can also be found in veins and in pegmatites. Where large deposits are found it is mined and used as an industrial lubricant and for 'lead' in pencils.
Classification of Graphite

IMA status:
Valid - first described prior to 1959 (pre-IMA) - "Grandfathered"

Strunz 8th edition ID:
1/B.02-10

Nickel-Strunz 10th (pending) edition ID:
1.CB.05a
1 : ELEMENTS (Metals and intermetallic alloys; metalloids and nonmetals; carbides, silicides, nitrides, phosphides)
C : Metalloids and Nonmetals
B : Carbon-silicon family

Dana 7th edition ID:
1.3.5.2

Dana 8th edition ID:
1.3.6.2
1 : NATIVE ELEMENTS AND ALLOYS
3 : Semi-metals and non-metals

Hey's CIM Ref.:
1.25
1 : Elements and Alloys (including the arsenides, antimonides and bismuthides of Cu, Ag and Au)

mindat.org URL:
http://www.mindat.org/min-1740.html
Please feel free to link to this page.
Physical Properties of Graphite

Lustre:
Sub-Metallic

Diaphaneity (Transparency):
Opaque

Colour:
Iron black to steel-grey

Streak:
Black to steel gray

Hardness (Mohs):
1 - 2

Hardness (Vickers):
VHN10=7 - 11 kg/mm2

Tenacity:
Flexible

Cleavage:
Perfect
{0001}

Fracture:
Micaceous

Density (measured):
2.09 - 2.23 g/cm3

Density (calculated):
2.26 g/cm3
Crystallography of Graphite

Crystal System:
Hexagonal

Class (H-M):
6mm - Dihexagonal Pyramidal

Space Group:
P63mc

Cell Parameters:
a = 2.461Å, c = 6.708Å

Ratio:
a:c = 1 : 2.726

Unit Cell Volume:
V 35.18 ų (Calculated from Unit Cell)

Morphology:
Hexagonal platy crystals, often bent.

Twinning:
{1121}
About Crystal Atlas
You may need to scroll this box using your mouse to view the full instructions.
The mindat.org Crystal Atlas allows you to view a selection of crystal drawings of real and idealised crystal forms for this mineral and, in certain cases, 3d rotating crystal objects. You need Java to see these. You can download Java for free - click here to download Java
The 3d models and java code are kindly provided by www.smorf.nl. You can control the movement of the models by holding down the left mouse-button over the 3d model and moving your mouse. Keyboard controls are:
: default positions

t/T
: decrease/increase transparency
x/X
: next/previous texture

b/B
: next/previous background
w
: toggle wireframe

s
: toggle sticks
m
: toggle miller indices

k
: toggle crystallographic axes
=/-
: zoom in/out

r
: stop/start rotation
1/2/3

歡迎來到Bewise Inc.的世界,首先恭喜您來到這接受新的資訊讓產業更有競爭力,我們是提供專業刀具製造商,應對客戶高品質的刀具需求,我們可以協助客戶滿足您對產業的不同要求,我們有能力達到非常卓越的客戶需求品質,這是現有相關技術無法比擬的,我們成功的滿足了各行各業的要求,包括:精密HSS DIN切削刀具、協助客戶設計刀具流程、DIN or JIS 鎢鋼切削刀具設計、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 航太切削刀具,NAS航太刀具設計、超高硬度的切削刀具、醫療配件刀具設計、複合式再研磨機、PCD地板專用企口鑽石組合刀具、粉末造粒成型機、主機版專用頂級電桿、PCD V-Cut刀、捨棄式圓鋸片組、粉末成型機、主機版專用頂級電感、’汽車業刀具設計、電子產業鑽石刀具、木工產業鑽石刀具、銑刀與切斷複合再研磨機、銑刀與鑽頭複合再研磨機、銑刀與螺絲攻複合再研磨機等等。我們的產品涵蓋了從民生刀具到工業級的刀具設計;從微細刀具到大型刀具;從小型生產到大型量產;全自動整合;我們的技術可提供您連續生產的效能,我們整體的服務及卓越的技術,恭迎您親自體驗!!

BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com bw@tool-tool.com www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan

Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer.

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com

ようこそBewise Inc.の世界へお越し下さいませ、先ず御目出度たいのは新たな

情報を受け取って頂き、もっと各産業に競争力プラス展開。

弊社は専門なエンド・ミルの製造メーカーで、客先に色んな分野のニーズ、

豊富なパリエーションを満足させ、特にハイテク品質要求にサポート致します。

弊社は各領域に供給できる内容は:

(1)精密HSSエンド・ミルのR&D

(2)Carbide Cutting tools設計

(3)鎢鋼エンド・ミル設計

(4)航空エンド・ミル設計

(5)超高硬度エンド・ミル

(6)ダイヤモンド・エンド・ミル

(7)医療用品エンド・ミル設計

(8)自動車部品&材料加工向けエンド・ミル設計

弊社の製品の供給調達機能は:

(1)生活産業~ハイテク工業までのエンド・ミル設計

(2)ミクロ・エンド・ミル~大型エンド・ミル供給

(3)小Lot生産~大量発注対応供給

(4)オートメーション整備調達

(5)スポット対応~流れ生産対応

弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。

Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz.

BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт www.tool-tool.com для получения большей информации.

BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web www.tool-tool.com for more info.

Monday, June 28, 2010

Thermal spraying www.tool-tool.com

版1ec31-02w00

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com Reference source from the internet.

Thermal spraying techniques are coating processes in which melted (or heated) materials are sprayed onto a surface. The "feedstock" (coating precursor) is heated by electrical (plasma or arc) or chemical means (combustion flame).

Thermal spraying can provide thick coatings (approx. thickness range is 20 micrometers to several mm, depending on the process and feedstock), over a large area at high deposition rate as compared to other coating processes such as electroplating, physical and chemical vapor deposition. Coating materials available for thermal spraying include metals, alloys, ceramics, plastics and composites. They are fed in powder or wire form, heated to a molten or semimolten state and accelerated towards substrates in the form of micrometer-size particles. Combustion or electrical arc discharge is usually used as the source of energy for thermal spraying. Resulting coatings are made by the accumulation of numerous sprayed particles. The surface may not heat up significantly, allowing the coating of flammable substances.

Coating quality is usually assessed by measuring its porosity, oxide content, macro and micro-hardness, bond strength and surface roughness. Generally, the coating quality increases with increasing particle velocities.

Several variations of thermal spraying are distinguished:

* Cold spraying
* Detonation spraying
* Flame spraying
* High-velocity oxy-fuel coating spraying (HVOF)
* Plasma spraying
* Warm spraying
* Wire arc spraying

In classical (developed between 1910 and 1920) but still widely used processes such as flame spraying and wire arc spraying, the particle velocities are generally low (< 150 m/s), and raw materials must be molten to be deposited. Plasma spraying, developed in the 1970s, uses a high-temperature plasma jet generated by arc discharge with typical temperatures >15000 K, which makes it possible to spray refractory materials such as oxides, molybdenum, etc.

A typical thermal spray system consists of the following:

* Spray torch (or spray gun) - the core device performing the melting and acceleration of the particles to be deposited
* Feeder - for supplying the powder, wire or liquid to the torch
* Media supply - gases or liquids for the generation of the flame or plasma jet, gases for carrying the powder, etc.
* Robot - for manipulating the torch or the substrates to be coated
* Power supply - often standalone for the torch
* Control console(s) - either integrated or individual for all of the above
*



In plasma spraying process, the material to be deposited (feedstock) — typically as a powder, sometimes as a liquid[2], suspension [3] or wire — is introduced into the plasma jet, emanating from a plasma torch. In the jet, where the temperature is on the order of 10,000 K, the material is melted and propelled towards a substrate. There, the molten droplets flatten, rapidly solidify and form a deposit. Commonly, the deposits remain adherent to the substrate as coatings; free-standing parts can also be produced by removing the substrate. There are a large number of technological parameters that influence the interaction of the particles with the plasma jet and the substrate and therefore the deposit properties. These parameters include feedstock type, plasma gas composition and flow rate, energy input, torch offset distance, substrate cooling, etc.
Deposit properties

The deposits consist of a multitude of pancake-like lamellae called 'splats', formed by flattening of the liquid droplets. As the feedstock powders typically have sizes from micrometers to above 100 micrometers, the lamellae have thickness in the micrometer range and lateral dimension from several to hundreds of micrometers. Between these lamellae, there are small voids, such as pores, cracks and regions of incomplete bonding. As a result of this unique structure, the deposits can have properties significantly different from bulk materials. These are generally mechanical properties, such as lower strength and modulus, higher strain tolerance, and lower thermal and electrical conductivity. Also, due to the rapid solidification, metastable phases can be present in the deposits.
Applications

This technique is mostly used to produce coatings on structural materials. Such coatings provide protection against high temperatures (for example thermal barrier coatings for exhaust heat management), corrosion, erosion, wear; they can also change the appearance, electrical or tribological properties of the surface, replace worn material, etc. When sprayed on substrates of various shapes and removed, free-standing parts in the form of plates, tubes, shells, etc. can be produced. It can be also used for powder processing (spheroidization, homogenization, modification of chemistry, etc.). In that case, the substrate for deposition is absent and the particles solidify during flight or in a controlled environment (e.g., water). A polymer dispersion aerosol could be injected into the plasma discharge in order to create a grafting of this polymer at a substrate surface[3]. This application is mainly used to modify the surface chemistry of polymers.
Variations

Plasma spraying systems can be categorized by several criteria.

Plasma jet generation:

* direct current (DC plasma), where the energy is transferred to the plasma jet by a direct current, high-power electric arc
* induction plasma or RF plasma, where the energy is transferred by induction from a coil around the plasma jet, through which an alternating, radio-frequency current passes

Plasma-forming medium:

* gas-stabilized plasma (GSP), where the plasma forms from a gas; typically argon, hydrogen, helium or their mixtures
* water-stabilized plasma (WSP), where plasma forms from water (through evaporation, dissociation and ionization) or other suitable liquid
* hybrid plasma - with combined gas and liquid stabilization, typically argon and water

Spraying environment:

* air plasma spraying (APS), performed in the ambient air
* controlled atmosphere plasma spraying (CAPS), usually performed in a closed chamber, either filled with inert gas or evacuated
* variations of CAPS: high-pressure plasma spraying (HPPS), low-pressure plasma spraying (LPPS), extreme case of which is vacuum plasma spraying (VPS, see below)
* underwater plasma spraying

Another variation consists of having a liquid feedstock instead of a solid powder for melt, this techniques is known as Solution precursor plasma spray
[edit] Vacuum plasma spraying

Vacuum plasma spraying

Vacuum plasma spraying (VPS) is a technology for etching and surface modification to create porous layers with high reproducibility and for cleaning and surface engineering of plastics, rubbers and natural fibers as well as for replacing CFCs for cleaning metal components. This surface engineering can improve properties such as frictional behavior, heat resistance, surface electrical conductivity, lubricity, cohesive strength of films, or dielectric constant, or it can make materials hydrophilic or hydrophobic.

The process typically operates at 39–120 °C to avoid thermal damage. It can induce non-thermally activated surface reactions, causing surface changes which cannot occur with molecular chemistries at atmospheric pressure. Plasma processing is done in a controlled environment inside a sealed chamber at a medium vacuum, around 13–65 Pa. The gas or mixture of gases is energized by an electrical field from DC to microwave frequencies, typically 1–500 W at 50 V. The treated components are usually electrically isolated. The volatile plasma by-products are evacuated from the chamber by the vacuum pump, and if necessary can be neutralized in an exhaust scrubber.

In contrast to molecular chemistry, plasmas employ:

* Molecular, atomic, metastable and free radical species for chemical effects.
* Positive ions and electrons for kinetic effects.

image

Plasma also generates electromagnetic radiation in the form of vacuum UV photons to penetrate bulk polymers to a depth of about 10 µm. This can cause chain scissions and cross-linking.

Plasmas affect materials at an atomic level. Techniques like X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy are used for surface analysis to identify the processes required and to judge their effects. As a simple indication of surface energy, and hence adhesion or wettability, often a water droplet contact angle test is used. The lower the contact angle, the higher the surface energy and more hydrophilic the material is.
Changing effects with plasma

At higher energies ionization tends to occur more than chemical dissociations. In a typical reactive gas, 1 in 100 molecules form free radicals whereas only 1 in 106 ionizes. The predominant effect here is the forming of free radicals. Ionic effects can predominate with selection of process parameters and if necessary the use of noble gases.
Wire arc spray

Wire arc spray is a form of thermal spraying where two consumable metal wires are fed independently into the spray gun. These wires are then charged and an arc is generated between them. The heat from this arc melts the incoming wire, which is then entrained in air jet from the gun. This entrained molten feedstock is then deposited onto a substrate. This process is commonly used for metallic, heavy coatings.[1]
High velocity oxygen fuel spraying (HVOF)

During the 1980s, a class of thermal spray processes called high velocity oxy-fuel spraying was developed: A mixture of gaseous or liquid fuel and oxygen is fed into a combustion chamber, where they are ignited and combusted continuously. The resultant hot gas at a pressure close to 1 MPa emanates through a converging–diverging nozzle and travels through a straight section. The fuels can be gases (hydrogen, methane, propane, propylene, acetylene, natural gas, etc.) or liquids (kerosene, etc.). The jet velocity at the exit of the barrel (>1000 m/s) exceeds the speed of sound. A powder feed stock is injected into the gas stream, which accelerates the powder up to 800 m/s. The stream of hot gas and powder is directed towards the surface to be coated. The powder partially melts in the stream, and deposits upon the substrate. The resulting coating has low porosity and high bond strength.[1]

HVOF coatings may be as thick as 12 mm (1/2"). It is typically used to deposit wear and corrosion resistant coatings on materials, such as ceramic and metallic layers. Common powders include WC-Co, chromium carbide, MCrAlY, and alumina. The process has been most successful for depositing cermet materials (WC–Co, etc.) and other corrosion-resistant alloys (stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, aluminium, hydroxyapatite for medical implants, etc.).[1]
Cold spraying

image

In the 1990s, cold spraying (often called gas dynamic cold spray) has been introduced. The method was originally developed in Russia with the accidental observation of the rapid formation of coatings, while experimenting with the particle erosion of the target exposed to a high velocity flow loaded with fine powder in a wind tunnel. In cold spraying, particles are accelerated to very high speeds by the carrier gas forced through a converging–diverging de Laval type nozzle. Upon impact, solid particles with sufficient kinetic energy deform plastically and bond mechanically to the substrate to form a coating. The critical velocity needed to form bonding depends on the materials properties, powder size and temperature. Soft metals such as Cu and Al are best suited for cold spraying, but coating of other materials (W, Ta, Ti, MCrAlY, WC–Co, etc.) by cold spraying has been reported.[1]

The deposition efficiency is low, and the window of process parameters and suitable powder sizes is narrow. To accelerate powders to higher velocity, finer powders (<20 micrometers) are used. It is possible to accelerate powder particles to much higher velocity using a processing gas having high speed of sound (helium instead of nitrogen). However, helium is costly and its flow rate, and thus consumption, is higher. To improve acceleration capability, nitrogen gas is heated up to about 900 C. As a result, deposition efficiency and tensile strength of deposits increase.[1]
Warm spraying

Is a novel modification of high-velocity oxy-fuel spraying, in which the temperature of combustion gas is lowered by mixing nitrogen with the combustion gas, thus bringing the process closer to the cold spraying. The resulting gas contains much water vapor, unreacted hydrocarbons and oxygen, and thus is dirtier than the cold spraying. However, the coating efficiency is higher. On the other hand, lower temperatures of warm spraying reduce melting and chemical reactions of the feed powder, as compared to HVOF. These advantages are especially important for such coating materials as Ti, plastics, and metallic glasses, which rapidly oxidize or deteriorate at high temperatures.[1]
Applications

Plasma sprayed ceramic coating applied onto a part of an automotive exhaust system

* Crankshaft reconditioning or conditioning
* Corrosion protection
* Fouling protection
* Altering thermal conductivity or electrical conductivity
* Wear control: either hardfacing (wear-resistant) or abradable coating
* Repairing damaged surfaces
* Temperature/oxidation protection (thermal barrier coatings)
* Medical implants
* Production of functionally graded materials (for either of the above applications)

Safety

Thermal spraying need not be a dangerous process, if the equipment is treated with care, and correct spraying practices are followed. As with any industrial process, there are a number of hazards, of which the operator should be aware, and against which specific precautions should be taken. Ideally, equipment should be operated automatically, in enclosures specially designed to extract fumes, reduce noise levels, and prevent direct viewing of the spraying head. Such techniques will also produce coatings that are more consistent. There are occasions when the type of components being treated, or their low production levels, requires manual equipment operation. Under these conditions, a number of hazards, peculiar to thermal spraying, are experienced, in addition to those commonly encountered in production or processing industries.
Noise

Metal spraying equipment uses compressed gases, which create noise. Sound levels vary with the type of spraying equipment, the material being sprayed, and the operating parameters. Typical sound pressure levels taken 1 meter behind the arc.
UV light

Combustion spraying equipment produces an intense flame, which may have a peak temperature more than 3,100°C, and is very bright. Electric arc spraying produces ultra-violet light, which may damage delicate body tissues. Spray booths, and enclosures, should be fitted with ultra-violet absorbent dark glass. Where this is not possible, operators, and others in the vicinity should wear protective goggles containing BS grade 6 green glass. Opaque screens should be placed around spraying areas. The nozzle of an arc pistol should never be viewed directly, unless it is certain that no power is available to the equipment.
Dust and fumes

The atomization of molten materials produces a certain amount of dust and fumes. Proper extraction facilities are vital, not only for personal safety, but to minimize entrapment of re-frozen particles in the sprayed coatings. The use of breathing masks, fitted with suitable filters, is strongly recommended, where equipment cannot be isolated. Certain materials offer specific known hazards:[5]

1. Finely divided metal particles are potentially pyrophoric and none should be allowed to accumulate.
2. Certain materials e.g. aluminum, zinc and other base metals may react with water to evolve hydrogen. This is potentially explosive and special precautions are necessary in fume extraction equipment.
3. Fumes of certain materials, notably zinc and copper alloys are unpleasant to smell, and, in certain individuals, may cause a fever-type reaction. This may occur some time after spraying and usually subsides rapidly. If it does not, medical advice must be sought.

Heat

Combustion spraying guns use oxygen and fuel gases. The fuel gases are potentially explosive. In particular, acetylene may only be used under approved conditions. Oxygen, while not explosive, will sustain combustion, and many materials will spontaneously ignite, if excessive oxygen levels are present. Care must be taken to avoid leakage, and to isolate oxygen and fuel gas supplies, when not in use.[5]
Shock hazards

Electric arc guns operate at low voltages (below 45 V dc), but at relatively high currents. They may be safely hand-held. The power supply units are connected to 440 V AC sources, and must be treated with caution.

歡迎來到Bewise Inc.的世界,首先恭喜您來到這接受新的資訊讓產業更有競爭力,我們是提供專業刀具製造商,應對客戶高品質的刀具需求,我們可以協助客戶滿足您對產業的不同要求,我們有能力達到非常卓越的客戶需求品質,這是現有相關技術無法比擬的,我們成功的滿足了各行各業的要求,包括:精密HSS DIN切削刀具、協助客戶設計刀具流程、DIN or JIS 鎢鋼切削刀具設計、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 航太切削刀具,NAS航太刀具設計、超高硬度的切削刀具、醫療配件刀具設計、複合式再研磨機、PCD地板專用企口鑽石組合刀具、粉末造粒成型機、主機版專用頂級電桿、PCD V-Cut刀、捨棄式圓鋸片組、粉末成型機、主機版專用頂級電感、’汽車業刀具設計、電子產業鑽石刀具、木工產業鑽石刀具、銑刀與切斷複合再研磨機、銑刀與鑽頭複合再研磨機、銑刀與螺絲攻複合再研磨機等等。我們的產品涵蓋了從民生刀具到工業級的刀具設計;從微細刀具到大型刀具;從小型生產到大型量產;全自動整合;我們的技術可提供您連續生產的效能,我們整體的服務及卓越的技術,恭迎您親自體驗!!

BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com bw@tool-tool.com www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan

Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer.

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com

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情報を受け取って頂き、もっと各産業に競争力プラス展開。

弊社は専門なエンド・ミルの製造メーカーで、客先に色んな分野のニーズ、

豊富なパリエーションを満足させ、特にハイテク品質要求にサポート致します。

弊社は各領域に供給できる内容は:

(1)精密HSSエンド・ミルのR&D

(2)Carbide Cutting tools設計

(3)鎢鋼エンド・ミル設計

(4)航空エンド・ミル設計

(5)超高硬度エンド・ミル

(6)ダイヤモンド・エンド・ミル

(7)医療用品エンド・ミル設計

(8)自動車部品&材料加工向けエンド・ミル設計

弊社の製品の供給調達機能は:

(1)生活産業~ハイテク工業までのエンド・ミル設計

(2)ミクロ・エンド・ミル~大型エンド・ミル供給

(3)小Lot生産~大量発注対応供給

(4)オートメーション整備調達

(5)スポット対応~流れ生産対応

弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。

Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz.

BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт www.tool-tool.com для получения большей информации.

BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web www.tool-tool.com for more info.

Thermal spraying www.tool-tool.com

版1ec31-02w00

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com Reference source from the internet.

Thermal spraying techniques are coating processes in which melted (or heated) materials are sprayed onto a surface. The "feedstock" (coating precursor) is heated by electrical (plasma or arc) or chemical means (combustion flame).

Thermal spraying can provide thick coatings (approx. thickness range is 20 micrometers to several mm, depending on the process and feedstock), over a large area at high deposition rate as compared to other coating processes such as electroplating, physical and chemical vapor deposition. Coating materials available for thermal spraying include metals, alloys, ceramics, plastics and composites. They are fed in powder or wire form, heated to a molten or semimolten state and accelerated towards substrates in the form of micrometer-size particles. Combustion or electrical arc discharge is usually used as the source of energy for thermal spraying. Resulting coatings are made by the accumulation of numerous sprayed particles. The surface may not heat up significantly, allowing the coating of flammable substances.

Coating quality is usually assessed by measuring its porosity, oxide content, macro and micro-hardness, bond strength and surface roughness. Generally, the coating quality increases with increasing particle velocities.

Several variations of thermal spraying are distinguished:

* Cold spraying
* Detonation spraying
* Flame spraying
* High-velocity oxy-fuel coating spraying (HVOF)
* Plasma spraying
* Warm spraying
* Wire arc spraying

In classical (developed between 1910 and 1920) but still widely used processes such as flame spraying and wire arc spraying, the particle velocities are generally low (< 150 m/s), and raw materials must be molten to be deposited. Plasma spraying, developed in the 1970s, uses a high-temperature plasma jet generated by arc discharge with typical temperatures >15000 K, which makes it possible to spray refractory materials such as oxides, molybdenum, etc.

A typical thermal spray system consists of the following:

* Spray torch (or spray gun) - the core device performing the melting and acceleration of the particles to be deposited
* Feeder - for supplying the powder, wire or liquid to the torch
* Media supply - gases or liquids for the generation of the flame or plasma jet, gases for carrying the powder, etc.
* Robot - for manipulating the torch or the substrates to be coated
* Power supply - often standalone for the torch
* Control console(s) - either integrated or individual for all of the above
*



In plasma spraying process, the material to be deposited (feedstock) — typically as a powder, sometimes as a liquid[2], suspension [3] or wire — is introduced into the plasma jet, emanating from a plasma torch. In the jet, where the temperature is on the order of 10,000 K, the material is melted and propelled towards a substrate. There, the molten droplets flatten, rapidly solidify and form a deposit. Commonly, the deposits remain adherent to the substrate as coatings; free-standing parts can also be produced by removing the substrate. There are a large number of technological parameters that influence the interaction of the particles with the plasma jet and the substrate and therefore the deposit properties. These parameters include feedstock type, plasma gas composition and flow rate, energy input, torch offset distance, substrate cooling, etc.
Deposit properties

The deposits consist of a multitude of pancake-like lamellae called 'splats', formed by flattening of the liquid droplets. As the feedstock powders typically have sizes from micrometers to above 100 micrometers, the lamellae have thickness in the micrometer range and lateral dimension from several to hundreds of micrometers. Between these lamellae, there are small voids, such as pores, cracks and regions of incomplete bonding. As a result of this unique structure, the deposits can have properties significantly different from bulk materials. These are generally mechanical properties, such as lower strength and modulus, higher strain tolerance, and lower thermal and electrical conductivity. Also, due to the rapid solidification, metastable phases can be present in the deposits.
Applications

This technique is mostly used to produce coatings on structural materials. Such coatings provide protection against high temperatures (for example thermal barrier coatings for exhaust heat management), corrosion, erosion, wear; they can also change the appearance, electrical or tribological properties of the surface, replace worn material, etc. When sprayed on substrates of various shapes and removed, free-standing parts in the form of plates, tubes, shells, etc. can be produced. It can be also used for powder processing (spheroidization, homogenization, modification of chemistry, etc.). In that case, the substrate for deposition is absent and the particles solidify during flight or in a controlled environment (e.g., water). A polymer dispersion aerosol could be injected into the plasma discharge in order to create a grafting of this polymer at a substrate surface[3]. This application is mainly used to modify the surface chemistry of polymers.
Variations

Plasma spraying systems can be categorized by several criteria.

Plasma jet generation:

* direct current (DC plasma), where the energy is transferred to the plasma jet by a direct current, high-power electric arc
* induction plasma or RF plasma, where the energy is transferred by induction from a coil around the plasma jet, through which an alternating, radio-frequency current passes

Plasma-forming medium:

* gas-stabilized plasma (GSP), where the plasma forms from a gas; typically argon, hydrogen, helium or their mixtures
* water-stabilized plasma (WSP), where plasma forms from water (through evaporation, dissociation and ionization) or other suitable liquid
* hybrid plasma - with combined gas and liquid stabilization, typically argon and water

Spraying environment:

* air plasma spraying (APS), performed in the ambient air
* controlled atmosphere plasma spraying (CAPS), usually performed in a closed chamber, either filled with inert gas or evacuated
* variations of CAPS: high-pressure plasma spraying (HPPS), low-pressure plasma spraying (LPPS), extreme case of which is vacuum plasma spraying (VPS, see below)
* underwater plasma spraying

Another variation consists of having a liquid feedstock instead of a solid powder for melt, this techniques is known as Solution precursor plasma spray
[edit] Vacuum plasma spraying

Vacuum plasma spraying

Vacuum plasma spraying (VPS) is a technology for etching and surface modification to create porous layers with high reproducibility and for cleaning and surface engineering of plastics, rubbers and natural fibers as well as for replacing CFCs for cleaning metal components. This surface engineering can improve properties such as frictional behavior, heat resistance, surface electrical conductivity, lubricity, cohesive strength of films, or dielectric constant, or it can make materials hydrophilic or hydrophobic.

The process typically operates at 39–120 °C to avoid thermal damage. It can induce non-thermally activated surface reactions, causing surface changes which cannot occur with molecular chemistries at atmospheric pressure. Plasma processing is done in a controlled environment inside a sealed chamber at a medium vacuum, around 13–65 Pa. The gas or mixture of gases is energized by an electrical field from DC to microwave frequencies, typically 1–500 W at 50 V. The treated components are usually electrically isolated. The volatile plasma by-products are evacuated from the chamber by the vacuum pump, and if necessary can be neutralized in an exhaust scrubber.

In contrast to molecular chemistry, plasmas employ:

* Molecular, atomic, metastable and free radical species for chemical effects.
* Positive ions and electrons for kinetic effects.

image

Plasma also generates electromagnetic radiation in the form of vacuum UV photons to penetrate bulk polymers to a depth of about 10 µm. This can cause chain scissions and cross-linking.

Plasmas affect materials at an atomic level. Techniques like X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy are used for surface analysis to identify the processes required and to judge their effects. As a simple indication of surface energy, and hence adhesion or wettability, often a water droplet contact angle test is used. The lower the contact angle, the higher the surface energy and more hydrophilic the material is.
Changing effects with plasma

At higher energies ionization tends to occur more than chemical dissociations. In a typical reactive gas, 1 in 100 molecules form free radicals whereas only 1 in 106 ionizes. The predominant effect here is the forming of free radicals. Ionic effects can predominate with selection of process parameters and if necessary the use of noble gases.
Wire arc spray

Wire arc spray is a form of thermal spraying where two consumable metal wires are fed independently into the spray gun. These wires are then charged and an arc is generated between them. The heat from this arc melts the incoming wire, which is then entrained in air jet from the gun. This entrained molten feedstock is then deposited onto a substrate. This process is commonly used for metallic, heavy coatings.[1]
High velocity oxygen fuel spraying (HVOF)

During the 1980s, a class of thermal spray processes called high velocity oxy-fuel spraying was developed: A mixture of gaseous or liquid fuel and oxygen is fed into a combustion chamber, where they are ignited and combusted continuously. The resultant hot gas at a pressure close to 1 MPa emanates through a converging–diverging nozzle and travels through a straight section. The fuels can be gases (hydrogen, methane, propane, propylene, acetylene, natural gas, etc.) or liquids (kerosene, etc.). The jet velocity at the exit of the barrel (>1000 m/s) exceeds the speed of sound. A powder feed stock is injected into the gas stream, which accelerates the powder up to 800 m/s. The stream of hot gas and powder is directed towards the surface to be coated. The powder partially melts in the stream, and deposits upon the substrate. The resulting coating has low porosity and high bond strength.[1]

HVOF coatings may be as thick as 12 mm (1/2"). It is typically used to deposit wear and corrosion resistant coatings on materials, such as ceramic and metallic layers. Common powders include WC-Co, chromium carbide, MCrAlY, and alumina. The process has been most successful for depositing cermet materials (WC–Co, etc.) and other corrosion-resistant alloys (stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, aluminium, hydroxyapatite for medical implants, etc.).[1]
Cold spraying

image

In the 1990s, cold spraying (often called gas dynamic cold spray) has been introduced. The method was originally developed in Russia with the accidental observation of the rapid formation of coatings, while experimenting with the particle erosion of the target exposed to a high velocity flow loaded with fine powder in a wind tunnel. In cold spraying, particles are accelerated to very high speeds by the carrier gas forced through a converging–diverging de Laval type nozzle. Upon impact, solid particles with sufficient kinetic energy deform plastically and bond mechanically to the substrate to form a coating. The critical velocity needed to form bonding depends on the materials properties, powder size and temperature. Soft metals such as Cu and Al are best suited for cold spraying, but coating of other materials (W, Ta, Ti, MCrAlY, WC–Co, etc.) by cold spraying has been reported.[1]

The deposition efficiency is low, and the window of process parameters and suitable powder sizes is narrow. To accelerate powders to higher velocity, finer powders (<20 micrometers) are used. It is possible to accelerate powder particles to much higher velocity using a processing gas having high speed of sound (helium instead of nitrogen). However, helium is costly and its flow rate, and thus consumption, is higher. To improve acceleration capability, nitrogen gas is heated up to about 900 C. As a result, deposition efficiency and tensile strength of deposits increase.[1]
Warm spraying

Is a novel modification of high-velocity oxy-fuel spraying, in which the temperature of combustion gas is lowered by mixing nitrogen with the combustion gas, thus bringing the process closer to the cold spraying. The resulting gas contains much water vapor, unreacted hydrocarbons and oxygen, and thus is dirtier than the cold spraying. However, the coating efficiency is higher. On the other hand, lower temperatures of warm spraying reduce melting and chemical reactions of the feed powder, as compared to HVOF. These advantages are especially important for such coating materials as Ti, plastics, and metallic glasses, which rapidly oxidize or deteriorate at high temperatures.[1]
Applications

Plasma sprayed ceramic coating applied onto a part of an automotive exhaust system

* Crankshaft reconditioning or conditioning
* Corrosion protection
* Fouling protection
* Altering thermal conductivity or electrical conductivity
* Wear control: either hardfacing (wear-resistant) or abradable coating
* Repairing damaged surfaces
* Temperature/oxidation protection (thermal barrier coatings)
* Medical implants
* Production of functionally graded materials (for either of the above applications)

Safety

Thermal spraying need not be a dangerous process, if the equipment is treated with care, and correct spraying practices are followed. As with any industrial process, there are a number of hazards, of which the operator should be aware, and against which specific precautions should be taken. Ideally, equipment should be operated automatically, in enclosures specially designed to extract fumes, reduce noise levels, and prevent direct viewing of the spraying head. Such techniques will also produce coatings that are more consistent. There are occasions when the type of components being treated, or their low production levels, requires manual equipment operation. Under these conditions, a number of hazards, peculiar to thermal spraying, are experienced, in addition to those commonly encountered in production or processing industries.
Noise

Metal spraying equipment uses compressed gases, which create noise. Sound levels vary with the type of spraying equipment, the material being sprayed, and the operating parameters. Typical sound pressure levels taken 1 meter behind the arc.
UV light

Combustion spraying equipment produces an intense flame, which may have a peak temperature more than 3,100°C, and is very bright. Electric arc spraying produces ultra-violet light, which may damage delicate body tissues. Spray booths, and enclosures, should be fitted with ultra-violet absorbent dark glass. Where this is not possible, operators, and others in the vicinity should wear protective goggles containing BS grade 6 green glass. Opaque screens should be placed around spraying areas. The nozzle of an arc pistol should never be viewed directly, unless it is certain that no power is available to the equipment.
Dust and fumes

The atomization of molten materials produces a certain amount of dust and fumes. Proper extraction facilities are vital, not only for personal safety, but to minimize entrapment of re-frozen particles in the sprayed coatings. The use of breathing masks, fitted with suitable filters, is strongly recommended, where equipment cannot be isolated. Certain materials offer specific known hazards:[5]

1. Finely divided metal particles are potentially pyrophoric and none should be allowed to accumulate.
2. Certain materials e.g. aluminum, zinc and other base metals may react with water to evolve hydrogen. This is potentially explosive and special precautions are necessary in fume extraction equipment.
3. Fumes of certain materials, notably zinc and copper alloys are unpleasant to smell, and, in certain individuals, may cause a fever-type reaction. This may occur some time after spraying and usually subsides rapidly. If it does not, medical advice must be sought.

Heat

Combustion spraying guns use oxygen and fuel gases. The fuel gases are potentially explosive. In particular, acetylene may only be used under approved conditions. Oxygen, while not explosive, will sustain combustion, and many materials will spontaneously ignite, if excessive oxygen levels are present. Care must be taken to avoid leakage, and to isolate oxygen and fuel gas supplies, when not in use.[5]
Shock hazards

Electric arc guns operate at low voltages (below 45 V dc), but at relatively high currents. They may be safely hand-held. The power supply units are connected to 440 V AC sources, and must be treated with caution.

歡迎來到Bewise Inc.的世界,首先恭喜您來到這接受新的資訊讓產業更有競爭力,我們是提供專業刀具製造商,應對客戶高品質的刀具需求,我們可以協助客戶滿足您對產業的不同要求,我們有能力達到非常卓越的客戶需求品質,這是現有相關技術無法比擬的,我們成功的滿足了各行各業的要求,包括:精密HSS DIN切削刀具、協助客戶設計刀具流程、DIN or JIS 鎢鋼切削刀具設計、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 航太切削刀具,NAS航太刀具設計、超高硬度的切削刀具、醫療配件刀具設計、複合式再研磨機、PCD地板專用企口鑽石組合刀具、粉末造粒成型機、主機版專用頂級電桿、PCD V-Cut刀、捨棄式圓鋸片組、粉末成型機、主機版專用頂級電感、’汽車業刀具設計、電子產業鑽石刀具、木工產業鑽石刀具、銑刀與切斷複合再研磨機、銑刀與鑽頭複合再研磨機、銑刀與螺絲攻複合再研磨機等等。我們的產品涵蓋了從民生刀具到工業級的刀具設計;從微細刀具到大型刀具;從小型生產到大型量產;全自動整合;我們的技術可提供您連續生產的效能,我們整體的服務及卓越的技術,恭迎您親自體驗!!

BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com bw@tool-tool.com www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan

Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer.

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com

ようこそBewise Inc.の世界へお越し下さいませ、先ず御目出度たいのは新たな

情報を受け取って頂き、もっと各産業に競争力プラス展開。

弊社は専門なエンド・ミルの製造メーカーで、客先に色んな分野のニーズ、

豊富なパリエーションを満足させ、特にハイテク品質要求にサポート致します。

弊社は各領域に供給できる内容は:

(1)精密HSSエンド・ミルのR&D

(2)Carbide Cutting tools設計

(3)鎢鋼エンド・ミル設計

(4)航空エンド・ミル設計

(5)超高硬度エンド・ミル

(6)ダイヤモンド・エンド・ミル

(7)医療用品エンド・ミル設計

(8)自動車部品&材料加工向けエンド・ミル設計

弊社の製品の供給調達機能は:

(1)生活産業~ハイテク工業までのエンド・ミル設計

(2)ミクロ・エンド・ミル~大型エンド・ミル供給

(3)小Lot生産~大量発注対応供給

(4)オートメーション整備調達

(5)スポット対応~流れ生産対応

弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。

Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz.

BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт www.tool-tool.com для получения большей информации.

BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web www.tool-tool.com for more info.

Friday, June 25, 2010

电子回旋共振www.tool-tool.com

版1ec0-13bmd

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com Reference source from the internet.

 这通常是指利用电子的回旋共振作用来进行测试的一种技术。该方法可直接测量出半导体中载流子的有效质量,并从而可求得能带极值附近的能带

  结构。

  ①若半导体置于磁感应强度为B的均匀恒定磁场中, 半导体中电子的初速度v与B的夹角为θ,则半导体中电子受到磁场作用的为f =-qv×B,大小为f = qvBsinθ= q v⊥B,v⊥= v sinθ,力的方向是垂直于v与B所组成的平面。从而, 电子的运动规律是:在磁场方向以速度 v’ = v cosθ作匀速运动, 在垂直于B的平面内作匀速圆周运动, 运动轨迹是一条螺旋线。如果圆周的半径是r, 回旋频率是ωc,则 v⊥= r ωc,向心加速度a = v⊥2 / r;又能带电子运动的加速度a = f / mn*;从而对于球面等能面情况有ωc = q B / mn* 。所以, 只要测量出回旋频率ωc, 就可以得到电子的有效质量mn* 。

  ②为了测量电子的回旋频率ωc, 还在半导体上再加一个交变电磁场(频率为微波~红外光),当电磁场的频率ω等于回旋频率ωc时即发生共振吸收;如测量出共振吸收时的电磁场频率ω=ωc和磁场B, 即可求出mn* 。具体进行测量时, 往往是固定交变电磁场的频率, 然后改变磁场B (大约为零点几特斯拉) 来观察共振吸收现象。同时为了观察到明显的共振吸收峰, 要求半导体样品比较纯净, 而且一般是在低温下进行。

歡迎來到Bewise Inc.的世界,首先恭喜您來到這接受新的資訊讓產業更有競爭力,我們是提供專業刀具製造商,應對客戶高品質的刀具需求,我們可以協助客戶滿足您對產業的不同要求,我們有能力達到非常卓越的客戶需求品質,這是現有相關技術無法比擬的,我們成功的滿足了各行各業的要求,包括:精密HSS DIN切削刀具、協助客戶設計刀具流程、DIN or JIS 鎢鋼切削刀具設計、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 航太切削刀具,NAS航太刀具設計、超高硬度的切削刀具、醫療配件刀具設計、複合式再研磨機、PCD地板專用企口鑽石組合刀具、粉末造粒成型機、主機版專用頂級電桿、PCD V-Cut刀、捨棄式圓鋸片組、粉末成型機、主機版專用頂級電感、’汽車業刀具設計、電子產業鑽石刀具、木工產業鑽石刀具、銑刀與切斷複合再研磨機、銑刀與鑽頭複合再研磨機、銑刀與螺絲攻複合再研磨機等等。我們的產品涵蓋了從民生刀具到工業級的刀具設計;從微細刀具到大型刀具;從小型生產到大型量產;全自動整合;我們的技術可提供您連續生產的效能,我們整體的服務及卓越的技術,恭迎您親自體驗!!

BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com bw@tool-tool.com www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan

Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer.

Bewise Inc. www.tool-tool.com

ようこそBewise Inc.の世界へお越し下さいませ、先ず御目出度たいのは新たな

情報を受け取って頂き、もっと各産業に競争力プラス展開。

弊社は専門なエンド・ミルの製造メーカーで、客先に色んな分野のニーズ、

豊富なパリエーションを満足させ、特にハイテク品質要求にサポート致します。

弊社は各領域に供給できる内容は:

(1)精密HSSエンド・ミルのR&D

(2)Carbide Cutting tools設計

(3)鎢鋼エンド・ミル設計

(4)航空エンド・ミル設計

(5)超高硬度エンド・ミル

(6)ダイヤモンド・エンド・ミル

(7)医療用品エンド・ミル設計

(8)自動車部品&材料加工向けエンド・ミル設計

弊社の製品の供給調達機能は:

(1)生活産業~ハイテク工業までのエンド・ミル設計

(2)ミクロ・エンド・ミル~大型エンド・ミル供給

(3)小Lot生産~大量発注対応供給

(4)オートメーション整備調達

(5)スポット対応~流れ生産対応

弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。

Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz.

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焼なましとは、鋼の結晶粒度を調整し、軟らかくする操作で、その目的によって種々な方法があります。いずれの場合も、

①A3又はA3-1変態点以上+50℃に加熱し、完全にオーステナイト化させます。

②Ar1点直下(約700℃)でオーステナイトをパーライトに変態させます。

(1)完全焼なまし

一般的に焼なましと云えば、この完全焼なましのことを云います。変態点以上+50℃

の温度に加熱した後、約25~40℃/h以下の温度で炉冷します。冷やし方は炉冷ですが、室温までゆっくりと冷やす必要はありません。臨界区域(約550℃)位まで炉冷したら、炉から取り出し後が空冷で良いのです。ただし、残留応力を嫌う場合は、400℃位まで徐冷すると良いでしょう。

(2)等温焼なまし

等温冷却を利用する方法です。TA温度から約600℃(S曲線の鼻より高い温度)に保った等温炉に入れ、等温変態が終了した後、取り出して空冷します。この処理は短時間で操作が完了でき、また、炉の循環的な利用も可能です。

(3)球状化焼なまし

パーライト中のセメンタイトを又は網状セメンタイトを球状化させるための焼なましです。球状化の方法には、

①Ac1点直下又は直上の温度に長時間加熱した後、ゆっくり冷やす方法。

②Ac1点の直上まで加熱し、Ar1点直下まで冷却を数回繰返し行う方法。

③簡単に球状化したい場合、また、構造用鋼など球状化がし難い鋼は、一度焼入れを行い、高温(650~700℃)で焼戻しを行うと比較的球状化が容易にできます。

(4)応力除去焼なまし

冷間鍛造や圧延、溶接、鋳造品などの残留応力を除去し、軟化させたり、ひずみを少なくするための処理で、一種の低温焼なましです。加熱温度は鋼の再結晶温度(約450℃)以上、A1変態点以下の温度です。通常は550~650℃が多く用いられています。冷却は徐冷(炉冷)が良いが、450℃以下は空冷でも効果的です。また、焼入変形を少なくするための前処理としての効果もあります。

金属組織について(2)

一般的な熱処理についてお話をしましたので、それらの処理によって生じた金属組織について、前に記述しなかった組織を概略解説しましょう。

スッテダイト

りん化鉄(Fe3P)と含りんオーステナイトの共晶を云います。熱処理では直接関係がありませんので省きましたが、片状黒鉛鋳鉄中の含りん共晶は、このスッテダイトです。また、Pを多く含む炭素鋼にも現れることがあります。

レデブライト

鉄鋼材料を融液から冷却してくると、1148℃でオーステナイトとセメンタイトが同時に晶出します。この共晶をレデブライト又はウエストと呼んでいます。レデブライトのC量は4.3%です。

複炭化物

FeとC、Mo、W、V、Crなど2種類以上の元素が化合してできた金属間化合物を複炭化物と云います。ダイス鋼(SKD)や高速度鋼(SKH)などの高合金鋼に多く存在する炭化物で、M3C、M6C、M23C6などがあります。Mは(FeCr)、(FeMo)など添加した金属元素を表します。

繊維状組織

冷間で加工し塑性変形を与えれば、結晶粒は加工方向に繊維状に伸び、加工度が大きくなると結晶粒は繊維を束ねたような組織にあります。このように加工方向に伸びた組織を繊維状組織と云います。この組織は、伸びた方向と直角方向では強度がかなり違います。このような組織は再結晶温度以上に加熱すれば元に戻ります。

トルースタイト

焼入れによって得られたマルテンサイトは、α鉄に多量のCが固溶したもので、硬くてもろい性質があります。これを粘い性質にするために、Cを吐き出させる必要があります。約400℃に加熱(焼戻し)すると、硬いマルテンサイトからFe3Cの形でCを吐き出します。この組織がトルースタイトです。フェライトとセメンタイトの混合組織で、マルテンサイトに次ぐ硬さです。ばね性もありますが、さびやすいのが欠点です。フランスのトルーストによって発見されました。硬さは400HV程度です。

ソルバイト

この組織もフェライトとセメンタイトの混合組織です。マルテンサイトをトルースタイトよりもさらに高い温度(550~650℃)で焼戻しをすると得られます。Fe3Cがやや粗大化し、トルースタイトよりもさらに凝集した模様を呈します。軟らかくショックに強いため、じん性が要求される機械部品に多用されています。また、窒化や高周波焼入れの前処理として施されます。イギリスのソルビーが命名したもので、硬さは270HV位です。

ベイナイト

オーステナイト化した鋼を焼入れする際、Ar′変態とAr″変態の中間の温度で等温処理すると、得られる独特な組織です。等温処理温度が高い(450~550℃)場合は、黒色の羽毛状(パーライトに近い)の組織が、また、比較的Ms点に近い温度で処理すると、針状(マルテンサイトに近い)の組織となります。羽毛状を上部ベイナイト、針状を下部ベイナイトと云います。いずれのベイナイトも、硬さが同一ならば通常の焼入れ・焼戻し材よりも粘り強い性質を持っています。米国のベインが発見したのでこの名前が付いています。

表面改質熱処理

前述したごとくバルク材の表面も内部も同時に、目的とする特性に変える処理を一般熱処理と呼びましたが、ここでは表面のみを改質する熱処理、特に表面硬化熱処理について概略解説しましょう。

表面硬化の種類

表面硬化処理には物理的硬化法と化学的硬化法の2つがあります。物理的な硬化法は、表面の化学成分を変えることなく、焼入れだけで硬くする方法です。高周波焼入れ、炎焼入れ、レーザ焼入れなどがあります。化学的な方法は、表面の化学組成を変えて、硬化させる方法で浸炭、窒化、浸硫窒化、ボロナイジング、拡散浸透処理などがこれに該当します。いずれの場合も表面を硬くし、耐摩耗性、耐疲労性、耐食性、耐熱性などの向上が目的ですが、これらの処理のどれを選ぶかは、母材との兼ね合いもあって大切な問題の一つです。

物理的硬化法

高周波焼入れ(JIS記号HQI)

高周波誘導加熱によって鋼を焼入れする場合、コイルと被加熱物に流れる電流は、周波数が高くなるにしたがい、それぞれの表面に集中してくる性質があります。この現象を表皮効果と呼んでいます。コイルと被加熱物に流れる電流は、向きが互いに反対方向であり、周波数が高くなるとこの表皮効果によって、反対方向の電流がますます接近して流れるので電気抵抗が少なくなります。被加熱物の表面のみが発熱するのはそのためです。電流の流れる表面の深さ(d)と周波数(f)との間には、次のような関係式があります。

d=5.03×103√ρ/(μ・f)

ただし、d:透過深さ(cm)、ρ:固有抵抗(μΩ・cm)、f:周波数、(Hz/sec)、

μ:透磁率

つまり、簡単に云えば電流の周波数が高くなるほど、加熱深さが浅くなります。例えば周波数10KHzの時は焼入れ深さは5mmとなります。表15に高周波発生装置の種類と特徴を示しましたが、現在では周波数の範囲が広い、サイリスタインバータ式の発振機が多用されています。高周波焼入れの特徴は、

(1)直接加熱ですから熱効率が良く、作業時間が短い。

(2)局所焼入れが可能で、硬化層深さの選定も比較的容易である。

(3)短時間加熱、急冷処理のため酸化、脱炭、変形が少ない。

(4)作業の標準化、自動化が容易である。

(5)急熱、急冷のため表面に大きな圧縮残留応力が生じ、耐摩耗性のみならず耐疲  労性も向上する

などが挙げられます。

高周波焼入加熱は、コイルによって行われますので、被加工品の寸法、形状に適したコイルの作成が重要です。コイルの種類には外面用、内面用、平面用などがありますが、コイルの選定は経験的な要素が多々あります。

高周波焼入れは、一般的に機械構造用炭素鋼及び低合金鋼が多く用いられていますが、急速加熱のため、炭化物が十分固溶しない内に温度が上昇し、Ac3変態点は鉄-炭素系状態図の場合よりも若干高くなります。したがって、高周波焼入れ硬さは、焼入れ前の素地組織によって大きく影響されます。ソルバイト組織のものは炭化物が十分に固溶しますので、焼入れ硬さは高くなります。硬さの表示は有効硬化層深さと全硬化層深さの2つがあります。有効硬化層深さは50%マルテンサイト(これをハーフマルテンと呼んでいます)までの深さに該当し、鋼のC%によってその限界硬さが決められています。また、全硬化層深さは母材の硬さまでの深さを採用しています。

冷却剤は水溶性冷却液が一般的に多く用いられ、冷却方法は大きな冷却速度が得られる噴射式が多用され、クランクシャフト、歯車、カム、ロール、シリンダライナなどに施されています。

炎焼入れ(JIS記号HQF)

アセチレンガス、都市ガス、プロパンガスなどと酸素との火炎によって、鋼の表面のみを加熱し、焼入れする操作です。高周波の場合は誘導電流によって自己発熱する内熱式に対し、炎の場合は外熱式です。いずれにしても耐摩耗性や耐疲労性の向上を目的とした処理です。特徴としては、

(1)被処理品の形状や寸法に制限を受けない。

(2)局所焼入れが可能で、硬化層深さの選定も比較的容易である。

(3)急速加熱、冷却のため酸化、脱炭、変形が比較的少ない。

(4)肉薄部品の局所焼入れは不向きである。

などが挙げられます。

焼入れ用の炎は、中性炎を用い最高温度の部分を利用します。また、高周波焼入れのコイルと同様に、炎焼入れにおいては火口の設計が重要なポイントです。火口は燃料ガスの種類や被加熱物の形状、大きさ、焼入れ硬化深さなど目的によって設計が変わり、ガスと酸素の混合形式から、元混合形、先混合形に、また、炎の形成上から孔及びスリットがあります。なお、用いる鋼は高周波焼入れの場合と同じであり、有効硬化層深さも同じと考えて良く前表を採用しています。また、表面硬さは大体次式によって推定ができます。

HRC=15+C Cは(%×100を表します)

高周波の場合も同様ですが、焼入れした後は必ず焼戻しを行います。

レーザ焼入れ

レーザ焼入れは、高エネルギー密度のレーザビームを鋼部品の表面に照射して加熱し、自己冷却作用によって焼入硬化させる方法です。レーザ発振装置には炭酸ガスレーザ、YGレーザ、プラズマレーザ、エキシマレーザなど色々ありますが、焼入れに用いているのは、炭酸ガスレーザが多いようです。レーザビームによる加熱は超急速であり、また、焼入れも冷却剤は用いず自己冷却です。したがって、短時間に小さい面積で局所焼入れができ、ひずみの発生も少ない利点があります。一般的に焼入れ後は焼戻しを行いません。

電子ビーム焼入れ

電子ビーム焼入れは、真空中で電子ビームを被処理物の表面上を走らせながら加熱し、自己冷却によって焼入れる方法です。真空を用いる不便さはありますが、酸化や脱炭などが無く良好な結果が得られます。また、比較的熱効率も良く、今後機械部品の小局所表面焼入硬化に多用されることと思います。

化学的硬化法

浸炭(JIS記号HC)

低炭素鋼(通常肌焼鋼と云っています)の表面にCを浸透拡散させ、高炭素としたのち、これを焼入れして表面を硬くする方法を浸炭と呼んでいます。浸炭焼入れには固体浸炭、液体浸炭、ガス浸炭の3種類がありますが、色々な理由から現状ではガス浸炭焼入れが主流です。表17は各種の方法について特徴を示したものです。いずれの場合も、表面が硬く内部が軟らかいため、耐摩耗性、耐疲労性に優れています。使用鋼は一般的に低炭素鋼が用いられ、次のような条件を満たしていることが必要です。

(1)浸炭温度に加熱した際、結晶粒の粗大化を起こさないこと。

(2)硬化層の硬さが高く、耐摩耗、耐疲労、高じん性を有すること。

(3)内部の被硬化部においても、結晶粒が粗大化せず、高じん性を有すること。

(4)浸炭を阻害する元素が少なく、遊離の炭化物を作る元素が含まれていないこと。

(5)加工性が良く、価額も安いことなどが挙げられます。

固体浸炭(HCS)

固体浸炭は、浸炭箱に処理品と木炭を主成分とした浸炭剤を積め、ふたで密閉をして行う処理です。この方法は各種の浸炭法の中で最も歴史が古く、炉の設備や作業法も簡単ですが、常に品質を一定に保つことが難しく、また、作業環境も悪いことから現在ではあまり行われていません。浸炭機構は基本的には、ガス浸炭の場合と同じです。箱内に詰められた浸炭剤は箱内に存在する酸素と反応し、炭酸ガス(CO2)となり、さらにCO2は炭素と反応して、一酸化炭素(CO)となります。

C+O2→CO2

C+CO2⇔2CO

このCが鋼の表面で分解して(C)となります。この(C)は通常のCと異なり、活性化炭素と云っています。実際には

          Fe+2CO→[Fe-C]+CO2

によって浸炭が行われます。

液体浸炭(HCL)

青酸カリ、青酸ソーダなど青化物を主成分とする塩浴を用い、約900℃に加熱した浴中に処理品を浸漬して浸炭します。浸炭層のコントロールは処理時間と温度によって行い、低温で短時間の場合は薄い浸炭層が、また、高温で長時間になると厚い浸炭層が得られます。しかしながら、シアン公害の問題から最近では斜陽傾向にあり、シアンを含まない液体浸炭も開発されています。

ガス浸炭(HCG)

天然ガス、都市ガス、プロパン、ブタンガスなど変成した浸炭性ガスあるいは液体を滴下し発生した浸炭性ガス中で処理品を加熱し、浸炭を行う方法です。ガス浸炭には一般的なガス浸炭の他真空炉を用いた真空浸炭、プラズマを利用したプラズマ浸炭(イオン浸炭とも云っています)、また、メタノールなどの液体を浸炭炉内に滴下し、その分解ガスによって浸炭を行う滴注式浸炭法などがあります。現在では特別な場合を除き、品質管理、生産性、公害などの観点から、このガス浸炭法が汎用されています。浸炭機構は固体浸炭の場合と同様です。ガス浸炭処理で最も留意すべき点は粒界酸化の問題です。できるだけ粒界酸化を防ぎ、また、残留オーステナイトの生成を抑えることが大切です。従来の浸炭は表面の炭素濃度を共析組成(0.78%)とし、焼入れによって得られたマルテンサイトにより耐摩耗性の改善を図っていましたが、この状態では、摩擦熱による温度上昇や高い温度雰囲気中で使用する場合などは、軟化現象が生じ寿命が低下することがあります。このような現象を防止する目的から、表面近傍の炭素濃度を3%前後まで上昇させ、球状化して分散させた炭化物分散浸炭なども行われています。

浸炭窒化

浸炭と同時に窒化処理も行う方法です。古くは青酸ナトリウム(NaCN)や青酸カリ(KCN)を主成分とする塩浴を用い、750~850℃で処理していたものが、これに相当し液体浸炭窒化と呼ばれていました。シアンを用いるこの方法も、前述のシアン公害の問題から斜陽傾向にあります。しかしながら、ガスによる浸炭窒化の場合は、比較的焼入性の低い材料に適用でき、若干残留オーステナイトが生成し易いが、通常浸炭よりも低温で処理が可能なため、利用頻度が多くなってきています。この処理法は通常のガス浸炭性ガス雰囲気中に0.5~1.0%のアンモニア(NH3)を添加し850℃前後の温度で行います。

窒化処理

窒化処理は鋼の表面に活性化窒素(N)を浸透させて、表面を硬くする方法です。鋼の表面にNが入ると表18のような窒化物を作ります。この窒化物は非常に硬いため、処理状態で用います。したがって、浸炭のような焼入れ操作は必要としません。処理温度はA1変態点以下のα-Fe区域(510~570℃)です。処理温度が低いため焼割れや焼ひずみの心配もありません。鋼中に入るNはアンモニアなどが熱分解してできた発生期のNが必要で、この窒素と親和力の強いAl、Cr、Moなどが鋼中に存在していることが重要です。特にCr、Moは不可欠成分です。JISで規定されているSACM645はAl、Cr、Moが含まれている窒化専用鋼です。もちろんSCMやSKDなども窒化処理を行って用いています。

表面に生成される窒素化合物は前述したFe2N、Fe2-3N、Fe4Nであり、白層と呼ばれている最表面の相はFe2-3Nです。いずれにしても、調質をしてから窒化処理をするのが基本です。なお、窒化防止にはSnめっき又はNiめっきなど行います、これをマスキングと云っています。

窒化硬化層深さには全硬化層深さと実用硬化層深さの二つがあります。全硬化層深さは測定が困難なため、母材の硬さよりも50HV高い、実用硬化層深さのほうが良く採用されています。

ガス窒化(HNTG)

1923年、A.Fryによってアンモニアの分解ガスを用いたのが最初です。500~550℃に加熱したアンモニア分解ガス中で、50~150時間処理します。この時のアンモニアの分解率は30%前後にします。この処理によって深さ0.2~0.3mm、1000~1200HVの硬さが得られます。耐摩耗性、耐食性に優れた特性が得られますが、処理時間の長いのが欠点です。

プラズマ窒化(イオン窒化)

窒化時間の長いのを補う目的で開発されたのがプラズマ窒化です。イオン窒化とも呼んでいます。この処理は低減圧の真空中により、放電によって行うガス窒化の一種です。図36に示すごとく、処理物を陰極、容器を陽極とし0.5~10Torrの真空中で約500Vの電圧をかけ放電を行います。この時アンモニアを導入すると窒化が行われるのです。窒化時間は数時間で良く、ガスも節約でき公害もありません。また、処理温度は450~570℃です。処理雰囲気には窒素と水素の混合ガスが多く用いられています。

塩浴軟窒化(HNTT)

塩浴軟窒化の代表的な処理はタフトライドです。この処理は青酸カリや炭酸カリなどをチタンるつぼに入れて溶融し、この中に空気を吹き込みながら処理を行う方法です。処理温度は570℃前後、時間は30~240分程度、加熱後は油冷か水冷を行います。用いられる鋼はオールマイティと云っても過言ではない位全ての材料に適しています。ただ、シアンの問題があり、最近ではシアン公害をゼロにした処理も開発されています。ガス窒化やプラズマ窒化と大きく異なる点は、後述するガス軟窒化と同様に、窒素と炭素が同時に侵入し、炭窒化物が形成されることです。写真14は塩浴軟窒化処理鋼の一例です。

浸硫窒化

窒素と硫黄を同時に侵入拡散させる処理です。塩浴軟窒化性浴の中に硫黄化合物を添加し、窒素化合物と硫黄化合物を同時に鋼表面に生成させる方法です。この処理には高濃度のものと低濃度の処理があり、また、比較的低温で行う電解浸硫窒化処理も行われています。いずれの場合も耐摩耗性と耐焼付き性が改善されます。

ガス軟窒化

軟窒化をガスによって行う方法で、公害は全くありません。この処理にはアンモニアガスと浸炭性ガスを混合して使う場合と、尿素を分解して用いる方法とがあります。

アンモニアガスと浸炭性ガスを1:1の割合で混合して用いる軟窒化は、ガス軟窒化の主流です。この他窒素ガスベースのものもあります。また、尿素の熱分解で生じたCOとNで軟窒化を行う方法もあります。処理温度や時間は他の軟窒化法と同じです。写真15は金属組織であり、表面の白層がε窒化物(Fe2-3N)です。

ボロナイジング(ほう化処理)

鋼の表面にFeB(約2000HV)、Fe2B(約1600HV)のボロン化合物を生成させ、これらの持つ高い硬さ値と非金属的物性によって耐摩耗性、耐焼付き性の改善を図る処理をボロナイジング又はほう化処理と呼んでいます。処理方法には固体、液体、気体の3通りがあります。いずれも日本では余り行われていませんが、ヨーロッパでは耐摩耗部品や金型類に汎用されています。最表面には処理方法と条件によって異なりますが、反応生成物としてFeB、Fe2Bが生成されます。耐摩耗性の観点からはFe2B単相の方が好ましいです。処理温度は1000℃ 前後の高温で行われるため、ひずみの発生があります。これらを考慮して処理することが大切です。

炭化物被覆処理

炭化物被覆処理法にはPVD(物理的蒸着法)やCVD(化学的蒸着法)のようなドライコーティング、TRD(VC炭化物コーティング)のようなウエットコーティングの2通りがあります。いずれの場合も鋼表面に硬い炭化物あるいは窒化物を生成させる方法です。PVDやCVDには色々な方法があり、硬質皮膜もTiN、TiC、TiCN、TiAlNなど、また、硬質皮膜のみならず光学的、物理的皮膜が種々検討され、すでに実用化されている皮膜も少なくありません。また、TRDは表面に硬いVC炭化物を生成させるもので、すでに実用化され金型など広範囲で使用されています。この処理は、素地と炭化物層の相互拡散によって密着強さが高く、はく離を起こし難い特徴がありますが、高温処理のため大きなひずみが発生しやすく、この問題解決にはある程度の経験が必要です。なお、最近ではα区域の低温で炭窒化物被覆する方法も開発されています。

水蒸気処理(ホモ処理)

鉄には一酸化鉄(FeO)、三酸化鉄(Fe2O3)、四酸化鉄(Fe3O4)の3種類の酸化鉄があります。FeOは白さび、Fe2O3は赤さび、Fe3O4は黒さびと云われています。Fe3O4は多孔質で硬く、耐食性に富んでいるので表面改質に利用されます。この膜を作るのには水蒸気を用います。赤さびが生じないように、加圧水蒸気を350~400℃に予熱した後、500℃前後に加熱した過熱水蒸気を処理品に通じるとFe3O4膜ができます。温度が高すぎたり、時間が長すぎたりするとFe3O4はFe2O3に変化してしまいますので注意をして下さい。ます。

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