A tank is a tracked armoured vehicle designed for front-line action, combining strong offensive and defensive capabilities. For offense the tank carries a large calibre gun and machine guns while heavy armour and good all-terrain mobility provide protection for the tank and its crew.
Tanks were first manufactured during World War I in an effort to break the deadlock of trench warfare. The British Army realized that they required a vehicle that had the mobility to reach the enemy trenches over barbed wire and rough terrain, the armour to withstand small arms fire and shrapnel from artillery and the weaponry to suppress or destroy enemy infantry, machine gun nests and pillboxes.
Today, tanks are among the most formidable and versatile weapons on the battlefield. They are valued for their ability to engage a wide range of ground targets, including enemy tanks and fortifications, as well as their shock value against infantry. In the ongoing race for battlefield supremacy, tanks and armored tactics have undergone continuous evolution for nearly a century. Although the main battle tank is generally considered a key component of modern armies, recent thinking has challenged the need for such powerful and expensive weaponry in a period characterized by unconventional and asymmetric warfare.
Tanks seldom operate alone, being organized into armoured units. Despite their apparent invulnerability, without combined arms support tanks are vulnerable to specialized anti-tank artillery, helicopters and aircraft, enemy tanks, anti-tank and improvised mines, and (at short ranges) infantry.[1]
Perhaps the greatest tribute to the impact of the tank on modern warfare is the variety of methods that have been developed to destroy or neutralise them.
[edit] History
[edit] World War I: The tank is born
The first proposal for a tank was by the Austrian Oberleutenant Günther Burstyn who, in 1911, proposed a design for "motor artillery" (Motorengeschütz) with a turret, but his design never progressed beyond a German patent in 1912.[citation needed]
Tank or "landship" development, originally conducted by the British Navy under the auspices of the Landships Committee was sponsored by the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill and proceeded through a number of prototypes culminating in the Mark I tank prototype 'Mother'.[2] The first tank to engage in battle was named "D1", a British Mark I, during the Battle of Flers-Courcellette on 15 September 1916.[3] For further information on British World War I tank actions, see Tanks in World War I.
In contrast to World War II, Germany fielded very few tanks during WWI, with only 15 of the A7V type being produced in Germany during the war.[4] The first tank versus tank action took place on 24 April 1918 at Villers-Bretonneux, France, when three British Mark IVs met three German A7Vs.
Mechanical problems, poor mobility and piecemeal tactical deployment limited the military significance of the tank in World War I and the tank did not fulfil its promise of rendering trench warfare obsolete. None the less, it was clear to military thinkers on both sides that tanks would play a significant role in future conflicts.[2]
[edit] Interwar years: Experiments
In the inter-war period tanks underwent further mechanical development and, in terms of tactics, J.F.C. Fuller's doctrine of spearhead attacks with massed tank formations was the basis for work by Heinz Guderian in Germany, Percy Hobart in Britain, Adna R. Chaffee, Jr. in the U.S., Charles de Gaulle in France, and Mikhail Tukhachevsky in the USSR. All came to similar conclusions, but in the Second World War only Germany would put the theory into practice on a large scale, and it was their superior tactics and French blunders, not superior weapons, that made blitzkrieg so successful in May 1940.[5] For information regarding tank development in this period, see tank development between the wars.
Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union all experimented heavily with tank warfare during their clandestine and/or 'volunteer' involvement in the Spanish Civil War, which saw some of the earliest examples of successful combined arms - such as when Republican troops, equipped with Russian-supplied medium tanks and supported by aircraft, eventually routed Italian troops fighting for the Nationalists in the seven-day Battle of Guadalajara in 1937.[6]
[edit] World War II: Blitzkrieg and combined arms
World War II was the first conflict where armoured vehicles were critical to success on the battlefield. During the German Invasion of Poland (1939) the Germans used a combination of Panzer I (a training tank), Panzer II light tanks, and captured Czechoslovakian tanks (Panzer 35(t) and Panzer 38(t)). Early war German tanks sacrificed firepower and protection for mobility and reliability. In contrast, the French had good tanks like the Somua S35 and Char B1 but employed a defensive strategy and had poor tank command and control systems, lacking radios in many of their tanks and headquarters.[5] The French and British used a range of tank designs with different roles (see British tank classification). One of the more successful British tanks of the war was the Matilda tank.
The German doctrine of blitzkrieg or "Lightning War" made use of radios in all of the tanks to provide command and control, which made them more effective tank for tank than their Allied opponents in the Battle of France, despite the Allied machines being more than a match for the panzers one-on-one. German tanks bypassed enemy strong-points and could radio for close air support to destroy them, or leave them to the infantry on foot. A related development, mechanized infantry, allowed some of the troops to keep up with the tanks and create (for the period) highly mobile combined arms forces.
By 1941, the Germans had the newer Panzer III and Panzer IV tanks with which to invade the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. In an echo of the Battle of France the Soviets had several good tanks and one superb tank design, the T-34. German crews were initially shocked by the excellent all-round performance of the T-34 and the protection and firepower of the KV-1. As before, the rigid Soviet command structure and poor leadership allowed their machines to be surrounded and destroyed in detail, but the Germans could not precipitate the same tactical and strategic panic as they had in France; instead they found an enemy that doggedly kept fighting without food, water and communications.[7] Despite early successes against the Soviets, the Germans began up-gunning their Panzer IVs, and eventually built larger Panther and Tiger tanks to (ultimately unsuccessfully) deal with the Soviet tank threat.
When entering WWII American mass production capacity enabled her to rapidly construct thousands of relatively cheap Sherman tanks. A compromise all round, the Sherman was reliable and formed a large part of the Anglo-American combined arms forces, but they were easily destroyed by the superior German Panther and Tiger tanks. In terms of tank warfare, large numbers allowed the Americans to overrun the German forces during the Battle of Normandy. The Sherman Firefly was introduced to improve the Sherman's firepower, but concerns about protection remained.
Tank chassis were adapted to a wide range of military jobs, including mine-clearing and combat engineering tasks. Specialised self-propelled guns were also developed: artillery, tank destroyers, and assault guns were essentially cheap, stripped down tanks carrying large calibre guns, often in a fixed hull mounting. German and Soviet assault guns, like the SU-122 had the heaviest guns mounted in vehicles, but by the end of the war a gun turret was recognised as the most effective mounting for the main gun to allow movement in a different direction from firing. Improved suspension systems were developed that allowed better cross-country performance and firing while moving. Systems like the earlier Christie or later torsion bar suspension developed by Ferdinand Porsche dramatically improved the tank's cross-country performance and overall mobility.[8]
By the end of the war all forces had dramatically increased their tanks' firepower and armour; for instance, the ten ton Panzer I had only two machine guns; at war's end, the standard German medium tank, the Panzer V or Panther tank mounted a powerful, high-velocity 75 mm gun and weighed forty-five tonnes but had mobility comparable to the Panzer I.
[edit] The Cold War: Tanks in the arms race
During the Cold War, the two opposing forces in Europe were the Warsaw Pact countries on the one side, and the NATO countries on the other side. The Warsaw Pact was seen by the West as having an aggressive force outnumbering the NATO forces and tank development proceeded largely as it had during WWII to maintain the balance of power. The essence of tank designs during the Cold War had been hammered out in the closing months of World War II. Large turrets, capable suspension systems, greatly improved engines, sloped armour and large caliber (100mm+) guns were all introduced to tanks during WWII. Tank design during the Cold War built on this foundation and included improvements to fire control, gun stabilisation, communications and crew comfort. Armour technology progressed in an ongoing race against improvements in anti-tank weapons, especially antitank guided missiles like the TOW.
Medium tanks of WWII gradually evolved into the Main Battle Tank of the Cold War and took over all tank roles on the battlefield. This transition happened gradually in the 1950s, as it was realized that medium tanks could carry guns (such as the US 90 mm, Soviet 100 mm, and the excellent British L7 105 mm) that could penetrate any practical thickness of armour plate at long range. The WWII concept of heavy tanks, armed with the most powerful guns and heaviest armour became obsolete, since they were just as vulnerable as other vehicles to the new medium tank guns. Likewise, WWII had shown that lightly-armed, lightly-armoured tanks were of little value in most roles; speed was not a substitute for armour and firepower.
The main battle tank (MBT) thus took on the role the British had once called the 'Universal tank', filling all battlefield tank roles. Among the classic tanks of the 1950s were the British Centurion, the Soviet T-55 series, and the US M48 series. These three basic vehicles were upgraded significantly over time and formed the bulk of the armoured forces of NATO and the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War. Some of them remain in use in the 21st century.
Although the basic roles and traits of tanks were almost all developed by the end of WWI, the performance, firepower and protection of twenty-first century tanks has increased by an order of magnitude over the early prototypes. Tanks have evolved dramatically in response to continually changing threats and requirements and especially in response to the threat of other tanks.
[edit] The 21st century: American Operations in Iraq from 2003 onward
As of 2005, there were 1,100 M1 Abrams used by the United States army in the course of the Iraq War, and they have proven to have an unexpectedly high level of vulnerability to roadside bombs.[9] A relatively new type of remotely-detonated mine, the explosively formed penetrator has been used with some success against American armoured vehicles (particularly the Bradley fighting vehicle). However, with upgrades to their armour in the rear, M1s have proven invaluable in fighting insurgents in urban combat (a role that tactics otherwise proscribe), particularly at the Battle of Fallujah, where the Marines brought in two extra brigades.[10] Britain deployed its Challenger 2 tanks to support its operations in southern Iraq.
[edit] Tank design
The three traditional factors determining a tank's effectiveness in battle are its firepower, protection, and mobility. In practical terms, the cost to manufacture and maintain a given tank design is also important in that it determines how many tanks a nation can afford to field.
Firepower is the ability of a tank to identify, engage, and destroy a target. Protection is the tank's ability to resist being detected, engaged, and disabled or destroyed by enemy fire. Mobility includes tactical (short range) movement over the battlefield including over rough terrain and obstacles, as well as strategic (long range) mobility, the ability of the tank to be transported by road, rail, sea, and/or air, to the battlefield.
Tank design is a compromise; it is not possible to maximize firepower, protection and mobility simultaneously. For example, increasing protection by adding armour will result in an increase in weight and therefore decrease mobility; increasing firepower by installing a larger gun will force the designer to sacrifice speed or armour to compensate for the added weight and cost.
Since WWII tank development has shifted focus from experimenting with large scale mechanical changes to the tank design to focussing on technological advances in the tank's subsystems to improve its performance.
- Further information: Tank classification
[edit] Firepower
With respect to tanks, firepower means the ability to rapidly detect, identify, engage and destroy targets on the battlefield.
The main weapon of all modern tanks is a single, large caliber (105 to 125mm) gun mounted in a fully traversing turret. The typical tank gun is a smoothbore weapon capable of firing armour-piercing kinetic energy penetrators (KEP), also known as armour-piercing discarding sabot (APDS), and high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) shells and/or anti-tank guided missiles (ATGM) to destroy armoured targets, as well as high explosive (HE) shells for engaging soft targets or fortifications. A modern type of tank ordnance arising from the close range urban combat in Iraq is a 120mm caliber "shotgun" round for the M1 Abrams which will fire 1100 tungsten pellets.[10]
A gyroscope is used to stabilise the main gun, reducing the effect of manoeuvring on accuracy. Modern tank guns are also commonly fitted with insulating thermal jackets to reduce gun-barrel warping caused by uneven thermal expansion, bore evacuators to minimise fumes entering the crew compartment and (less often) muzzle brakes to minimise the effect of recoil on accuracy and rate of fire.
Modern target detection relies on telescopic periscopes and sophisticated light intensification and thermal imaging equipment to improve fighting capability at night, in poor weather and in smoke. The accuracy of modern tank guns is pushed to the mechanical limit by computerized fire control systems. The fire control system uses a laser range-finder to detect the range to the target, a thermocouple, anemometer and wind vane to correct for weather effects and a muzzle referencing system to correct for gun-barrel temperature, warping and wear. Two sightings of a target with the range-finder enable calculation of the target movement vector. This information is combined with the known movement of the tank and the principles of ballistics to calculate the elevation and aim point that maximises the probability of destroying the target.
Usually, tanks carry small calibre (7.62 to 20mm) armament for short range defence where fire from the main weapon would be ineffective, for example when engaging infantry, light vehicles or aircraft. Typical mountings for these light weapons are coaxially with the main gun and on a roof mounting.
[edit] Protection
- See also: Anti-tank warfare
A tank's protection is the combination of its ability to avoid detection, to avoid being hit by enemy fire, its armour to resist the effects of enemy fire, and to sustain damage and complete its mission, or at least protect its crew. In common with most unit types, tanks are subject to additional hazards in wooded and urban combat environments which largely negate the advantages of the tank's long-range firepower and mobility, limit the crew's detection capabilities and can restrict turret traverse. Despite these disadvantages, tanks retain high survivability against previous generation RPGs in all combat environments by virtue of their armour. By contrast, tank survivability against newer generation tandem-warhead anti-tank missiles is a concern for military planners.[11]
[edit] Avoiding detection
A tank avoids detection using the doctrine of CCD: camouflage (looks the same as the surroundings), concealment (cannot be seen) and deception (looks like something else).
Working against efforts to avoid detection is the fact that a tank is a large metallic object with a distinctive, angular silhouette that emits copious heat and noise when mobile. Consequently, it's difficult to effectively camouflage a hull-up tank in the absence of some form of cover or concealment (eg. woods). The tank becomes easier to detect when mobile due to the large, distinctive auditory, vibration and thermal signatures of a powerplant with an output comparable to that of a diesel locomotive.[citation needed] Tank tracks and dust clouds also betray past or present tank movement. Powered down tanks are vulnerable to infra-red detection due to differences between the thermal conductivity and therefore heat dissipation of the metallic tank and its surroundings. At close range the tank can be detected even when powered down and fully concealed due to the column of warmer air above the tank and the smell of diesel.
Thermal blankets slow the rate of heat emission and camouflage nets use a mix of materials with differing thermal properties to operate in the infra-red as well as the visible spectrum. Camouflage attempts to break up the distinctive appearance and silhouette of a tank. Adopting a turret-down or hull-down position reduces the visible area of a tank as well as providing the added protection of a position in defilade.
[edit] Armour
To effectively protect the tank and its crew, tank armour must counter a wide variety of anti-tank threats. Protection against kinetic energy penetrators and high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) shells fired by other tanks is of primary importance, but tank armour must also aim to protect against infantry anti-tank missiles, anti-tank mines, bombs, direct artillery hits, and (less often) nuclear, bacterial and chemical threats, any of which could disable or destroy a tank and/or its crew.
Steel armour plate was the earliest type of armour. The Germans pioneered the use of face hardened steel during WWII and the Soviets also achieved improved protection with sloped armour technology. WWII developments also spelled the eventual doom of homogeneous steel armour with the development of shaped charge warheads, exemplified by the Panzerfaust and bazooka infantry weapons which were lethally effective, despite some early success with spaced armour.
British tank researchers took the next step with the development of Chobham armour, or more generally composite armour, incorporating ceramics and plastics in a resin matrix between steel plates, which provided good protection against early HEAT weapons. Magnetic mines led to the development of anti-magnetic paste and paint, squash head warheads led to Kevlar (or equivalent) anti-spall armour linings, and KEPs led to the inclusion of exotic materials like depleted uranium in the composite matrix. Reactive armour consists of small explosive "bricks" that detonate when damaged by HEAT fire, bending or disrupting the incoming molten metallic jet. Tandem warheads defeat reactive armour by causing the armour to detonate prematurely. Grenade launchers which can rapidly deploy a smoke screen and the modern Shtora soft-kill countermeasure system provide additional protection by disrupting enemy targeting and fire control systems.
The latest generation of protective measures for tanks are active protection systems, particularly hard-kill countermeasures. The Israeli TROPHY and Iron Fist, the American Quick Kill, and the Russian Drozd and Arena systems show the potential to dramatically improve protection for tanks against missiles, RPGs and potentially KEP attacks, but concerns regarding friendly fire against dismounted crew and nearby infantry remain.
[edit] Mobility
The mobility of a tank is described by its battlefield or tactical mobility and its strategic mobility. Tactical mobility can be broken down firstly into agility, describing the tank's acceleration, braking, speed and rate of turn on various types of terrain, and secondly obstacle clearance: the tank's ability to travel over vertical obstacles like low walls or trenches or through water. Strategic mobility is the relative ease with which a military asset can be transported between theatres of operation and falls within the scope of military logistics.
Tank agility is a function of the weight of the tank due to its inertia while maneouvering and its ground pressure, the power output of the installed powerplant and the tank transmission and track design. In addition, rough terrain effectively limits the tank's speed through the stress it puts on the suspension and the crew.
A main battle tank is highly mobile and able to travel over most types of terrain due to its continuous tracks and advanced suspension. The tracks disperse the significant weight of the vehicle over a large area, resulting in a ground pressure comparable to that of a walking man.[12] A tank can travel at approximately 40 kilometres per hour (25 mph) across flat terrain and up to 70 kilometres per hour (43 mph) on roads, but due to the mechanical strain this places on the vehicle and the logistical strain on fuel delivery and tank maintenance, these must be considered "burst" speeds that invite mechanical failure in the relatively weak tank tracks. Consequently, wheeled tank transporters and rail infrastructure is used wherever possible for long distance tank transport. The limitations of long range tank mobility can be viewed in sharp contrast to that of wheeled armoured fighting vehicles.
The majority of Blitzkrieg or "Lightning War" was conducted at the pedestrian pace of 5 kilometres per hour (3.1 mph) and that was only achieved on the roads of France.[13] In modern armed conflicts when tanks move in a region with no rail infrastructure and few good roads, or face a high risk of enemy mines or ambushes, the average speed of advance of a tank unit in a day is comparable to a man on a horse or bicycle.[citation needed]
[edit] Water operations
Water, commonly in the form of rivers to be crossed, is a major impediment to a tank advance. Engineering teams require large quantities of specialised equipment and hours or even days to construct pontoon bridges capable of carrying the weight of a main battle tank in combat conditions.[14]
For most tanks, water operations are limited to fording rivers. The typical fording depth for MBTs is approximately 1 metre (3.3 ft), being limited by the height of the engine air intake and driver's position. Modern Soviet tanks and the German Leopard I and Leopard II tanks can ford to a depth of 3-4 meters when properly prepared and equipped with a snorkel to supply air for the crew and engine. Tank crews usually have a negative reaction towards deep fording but it adds considerable scope for surprise and tactical flexibility in water crossing operations by opening new and unexpected avenues of attack.
Amphibious tanks are specially designed or adapted for water operations, but they are rare in modern armies, being replaced by purpose built amphibious assault vehicles or armoured personnel carriers in amphibious assaults.
[edit] Tank power-plants
The tank's power-plant supplies kinetic energy to move the tank, and electric power via a generator to components such as the turret rotation motors and the tank's electronic systems. The tank power plant has evolved from predominantly petrol and large displacement adapted aeronautical or automobile engines during WWI and WWII, to diesel engines and gas turbines in the T-80 and M1 Abrams during the Cold War, through to modern multi-fuel engines - an advanced type of diesel engine.
[edit] Command, control and communications
Commanding and coordinating tanks in the field has always been subject to particular problems, particularly in the area of communications, but in modern armies these problems have been partially alleviated by networked, integrated systems that enable communications and contribute to enhanced situational awareness.
[edit] Early communications
Armoured bulkheads, engine noise, intervening terrain, dust and smoke, and the need to operate "buttoned up" are severe detriments to communication and led to a sense of isolation for small tank units, individual vehicles or even crewmen in the past. In the earliest tank operations, communications between the vehicles of an armoured company were accomplished using hand signals, handheld semaphore flags (which was still in use in the Red Army as late as World War Two) or close range verbal communication. In WWI, situation reports were sent back to headquarters by releasing carrier pigeons through vision slits. Deployment of signal flares or smoke grenades, movement, and weapon fire were all used by experienced crews to coordinate their tactics.[citation needed]
[edit] Modern communications and the networked battlefield
On the modern battlefield an intercom mounted in the crew helmet provides internal communications and a link to the radio network, and on some tanks an external intercom on the rear of the tank provides communication with co-operating infantry. Radio networks employ radio voice procedure to minimise confusion and "chatter".
A recent development in AFV equipment and doctrine is Network-centric warfare (US) or Network Enabled Capability (UK). This consists of the increased integration of information from the fire control system, laser range-finder, Global Positioning System and terrain information via hardened milspec electronics and a battlefield network to display all known information on enemy targets and friendly units on a monitor in the tank. The sensor data can be sourced from nearby tanks, planes, UAVs or (in the future) infantry. This improves the tank commander's situational awareness and ability to navigate the battlefield and select and engage targets. In addition to easing the reporting burden by automatically logging all orders and actions, orders are sent via the network complete with text and graphical overlays.
- See also: Military communications, Command, control, and communications, and C4ISTAR
[edit] Research and development
In terms of firepower, the focus of current R&D is on increased detection capability such as thermal imagers, automated fire control systems and increased muzzle velocity from the gun to improve range, accuracy and armour penetration. The most mature future gun technology is the electrothermal-chemical gun.
To improve tank protection, one field of research involves making the tank invisible to radar by adapting stealth technologies originally designed for aircraft. A variety of camera and display technologies attempt to improve tank camouflage or even render it invisible. Research is also ongoing in electromagnetic armour systems to disperse or deflect incoming shaped charge jets.
Mobility may be enhanced in future tanks by the use of Diesel-electric or turbine-electric series hybrid drives improving fuel efficiency while reducing the size and weight of the powerplant.
In line with the new doctrine of Network-centric warfare, the modern battle tank shows increasing sophistication in its electronics and communication systems.
[edit] Etymology
There are at least three possible explanations of the origin of the name "tank". One is it first arose in British factories making the hulls of the first battle tanks: workmen and possible spies were to be given the impression they were constructing mobile water containers or tanks for the British Army, hence keeping the production of a fighting vehicle secret.[2] Another is the term was first used in a secret report on the new motorized weapon presented to Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, by British Army Lt.-Col. Ernest Swinton. From this report, three possible terms emerged: "cistern", "motor-war car", and "tank". Apparently "tank" was chosen due to its linguistic simplicity.[15] Perhaps the most compelling story comes from Churchill's authoritative biography. To disguise the device, drawings were marked "water carriers for Russia." When it was pointed out this might be shortened to "WCs for Russia," the drawings were changed to "water tanks for Russia." Eventually the weapon was just called a tank.[16]
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BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт www.tool-tool.com для получения большей информации.
BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web www.tool-tool.com for more info.
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